A-R-COLQUHOUN 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 

Clark  J.  Milliron 


THE    MASTERY    OF   THE    PACIFIC 


COPYRIGHT,  1902, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  February,  1902. 


NorfoooU  }3rrss 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  b  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A.. 


ERRATA 

Page  8,  line  21.    Insert  "  s  "  after  "  island." 
Page  14,  line  20.    For  "  Majapahit  "  read  "  Majahpahit." 
Page  23,  line  15.    For  "in  1871  "  read  "since  1871." 
Page  24,  lines  25-26.   Read  "  Japan  or  Formosa  "  after  "Australasia." 
Page  46,  line  16.    For  "one-eighth"  read  "one-seventh." 
Page  94,  line  10.    For  "  she  was  "  read  "  they  were." 
Page  179,  line  13.    For  "colonies"  read  "colonists." 
Page  180,  line  15.    For  "  Moluccas,  she"  read  "  Moluccas  they." 
Page  189,  line  13.    For  "  desired  "  read  "  designed." 
Page  191,  line  23.    Omit  "with." 
Page  224,  line  27.    For  "  American  "  read  "Yankee." 
Page  280,  line  4.    For  "which  "  read  "will." 

Page  358,  lines  17-18.  For  "one  million  imports  and  one"  read 
"  two  million  imports  and  two." 

Page  376,  line  26.  For  "  London,  Hamburg,"  read  "  Europe, 
America." 

Page  426,  lines  6-12.  For  "developments;  .  .  .  Far  East"  read 
"  developments.  At  present  it  seems  as  if  China  must  pass  under  the 
influence  of  Russia  in  foreign  affairs,  but  from  the  Western  point  of  view 
the  great  hope  for  the  Empire  is  that  the  chief  commercial  Powers  may 
unite  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  what  remains  of  China  and  that  she 
may  pass  under  the  tutelage  of  Japan." 

Page  430,  line  9.    For  "  conflict "  read  "  effort." 


822917 


Co 


PREFACE 

THE  writer  of  this  book  has  long  been  a  traveller  in 
foreign  lands  and  a  student  of  foreign  affairs,  but  more 
especially  of  the  questions  which  find  their  focus  in  the 
Far  East.  Among  the  changes  and  shiftings  of  human 
activity  which  have  taken  place  in  the  world's  history, 
none  have  been  more  striking  than  those  which  are 
rapidly  transforming  the  great  ocean  zone  of  the  Pacific. 
Remoteness  and  isolation  are  becoming  less  and  less 
possible  over  the  face  of  the  globe,  as  distance  is  anni- 
hilated by  modern  science,  but  the  vast  Pacific,  until 
quite  recent  times,  deserved  the  name  bestowed  on  it  by 
its  earliest  discoverer,  and  was  free  from  the  entangle- 
ments of  modern  politics.  On  its  borders,  however, 
great  changes  were  taking  place,  young  Powers  were 
arising,  and  at  the  appointed  time  the  barriers  were  cast 
down  and  the  Pacific  became  an  arena  for  the  ambitious 
of  the  nations  and  a  highway  for  international  commerce. 
That  the  future  of  more  than  one  Great  Power  will  be 
decided  in  this  arena,  where  will  occur  the  great  struggle 
of  the  twentieth  century,  was  the  conviction  borne  in  on 
the  writer  by  many  events  that  cast  their  shadow  before. 
He  therefore  determined  to  study  for  himself  such  por- 
tions of  the  ocean  territories  as  had  hitherto  been  un- 
visited  by  him  and  to  renew  his  acquaintance  with  others. 


viii  PREFACE 

With  the  American- Pacific  slope  he  was  already  ac- 
quainted, and  a  residence  of  considerable  duration  in  the 
United  States  had  also  given  him  a  certain  insight  into 
American  affairs.  With  the  entire  Asiatic-Pacific  coast 
he  was  familiar,  nor  was  his  knowledge  limited  to  the 
littoral.  There  remained  the  continent  of  Australia  and 
the  many  islands  with  which  the  Pacific  is  studded. 
The  latter  group  themselves  into  four  chief  sections: 
those  belonging  respectively  to  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  Holland,  —  the  three  chief  colonial  Powers 
in  the  Far  East,  —  and  the  island  empire  of  Japan  with 
its  colony  Formosa.  With  some  of  these  the  writer  was 
already  acquainted,  and  others  he  visited  during  1901. 
The  Pacific  possessions  of  the  four  chief  Powers  have 
been  treated  separately  in  the  following  pages,  while  the 
other  Powers  interested  in  the  Pacific  have  been  dealt 
with  in  a  single  chapter. 

It  was  felt  that  a  study,  however  imperfect,  of  the 
present  conditions  in  the  Pacific  area  would  be  incom- 
plete without  some  slight  account  of  the  past  history 
and  the  peoples  found  there.  This  is  given  in  outline 
in  the  opening  chapter,  but  for  the  sake  of  brevity  the 
writer,  while  following  the  best  authorities,  has  been 
compelled  to  curtail  certain  portions,  particularly  those 
dealing  with  prehistoric  times,  so  that  scientific  accuracy 
may  perhaps  have  suffered.  This  work,  however,  is 
neither  scientific  nor  historical,  and  the  aim  of  the  intro- 
ductory chapter  is  merely  to  give  the  reader  a  general 
idea  of  the  past  history  of  that  ocean  which  will  play  so 
important  a  part  in  the  future. 

This  brief  explanation  will  serve  to  indicate  the  scope 


PREFACE  ix 

of  the  work,  and  it  need  only  be  added  that  while  com- 
mercial interests  have  been  considered,  the  main  object 
has  been  to  present  a  vivid  impression  of  the  various 
countries,  —  their  peoples,  scenery,  social  and  political 
life,  and  the  parts  they  are  destined  to  play  in  the  great 
drama  of  the  mastery  of  the  Pacific. 

The  writer  has  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to 
many  who  assisted  him  in  his  last  journey,  more  particu- 
larly to  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  to  many 
British  and  Japanese  officials  whose  names  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give,  and  to  the  British  North  Borneo  Company. 

The  sketches  and  many  of  the  photographs  were  taken 
during  the  journey  by  Mrs.  A.  R.  Colquhoun ;  for  others 
the  writer's  thanks  are  due  to  the  Koninklijk  Instituut 
voor  de  Taal-Land-en  Volkenkunde  of  Netherlands  India, 
to  Surgeon-major  Horace  F.  Cross,  R.N.,  Schloss  Fiirst, 
Meran  (for  admirable  photographs  of  Oceanica),  John  F. 
Horsburgh,  Esq.  (Australia  and  New  Zealand),  Dr.  John- 
stone,  of  Singapore  (Borneo),  John  Macleod,  Esq.,  Manila, 
Thomas  Taylor,  Pangasinau,  P.  I.  (Philippines),  and  to 
several  other  friends  who  will  perhaps  accept  this  general 
expression  of  the  writer's  gratitude. 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 


INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER 

I.    THE  STORY  OF  THE  PACIFIC         .                        .        .        .  3 

THE   UNITED   STATES   IN  THE  PACIFIC 

II.    THE  EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    ....  27 

III.  THE  PHILIPPINES  AND  THE  FILIPINOS 54 

IV.  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  PHILIPPINES  ....  94 
V.    THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES 117 

GREAT   BRITAIN   IN   THE   PACIFIC 

VI.    THE  NEW  AUSTRALASIA        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  157 

VII.    THE  NEW  AUSTRALASIA  (CONTINUED) 187 

VIII.    CANADA  AND  THE  PACIFIC 209 

IX.    THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND  HONG  KONG    .        .        .  227 

X.    BRITISH  NORTH  BORNEO 248 

THE   DUTCH   IN   THE   PACIFIC 

XI.    THE  EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS         .        .        .        .        .        .287 

XII.    JAVA       . .  318 

XIII.    THE  COLONIAL  DUTCH  AND  THEIR  METHODS       .        .        .341 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

JAPAN   IN   THE   PACIFIC 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIV.    THE  NEW  JAPAN   .        .        .        ......    367 

XV.    FORMOSA:  JAPANESE  AS  COLONISTS     .....    378 


OTHER   POWERS   IN   THE   PACIFIC 
XVI.    GERMANY.  FRANCE,  RUSSIA,  AND  CHINA       .  .        .    403 

CONCLUSION 
XVII.    CONCLUSION   ........        .        .423 

INDEX  .............    431 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Effect  of  Sunrise  on  the  Highest  Mountain  Village  of  Java    Frontispiece 

PACK 

Dyak  Head-hunting  Party 3 

Negritos .5 

Papuan  Type 7 

Indonesian  Type  :  Dyak  Head-hunter »•        9 

Oceanic-Caucasian  or  Polynesian  Type:  Girl  from  Tahiti       .       Facing      10 
Malay  Type :  From  the  Malay  Peninsula       .        .         .        ...        .       1 1 

Malay  Type :  From  Java        .         .         .         .         .         .         ..         .12 

The  Golden  Gate,  San  Francisco ,  -27 

A  Californian  City Facing      32 

Hawaiian  Man 40 

Hawaiian  Girl 41 

Pango-pango  Harbour,  Samoa 44 

A  Typical  Filipino  Village Facing      54 

Tinguianes  —  One  of  the  Pagan  Tribes  of  Luzon   .         .         .       Facing      56 

Moros  from  Jolo Facing      60 

A  Spanish  Mestiza *      •  .        .61 

Visayan  Girl .      73 

Washing  Clothes .      74 

The  Toilet 75 

Basket  Making       . 77 

Binando  Church,  Manila 81 

View  from  Verandah  of  a  Convento       .         .        .        .  __,    .        .        .84 

A  Village  Market Facing      86 

A  Filipino  Wake 94 

Igorrotes 97 

Street  Scene,  Cebu 102 

Manila  and  the  River  Pasig Facing    104 

Sketch  in  the  Walled  City 107 

Coming  from  Church 1 1 1 


xiv  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

River  Scene  and  Convento Facing  114 

Fiesta  Time 117 

Village  at  the  Foot  of  Volcano :  Mayon 137 

A  River  Scene,  Island  of  Luzon Facing  146 

The  Indispensable  Carabao  and  Cart      .         .         .        .         .        .         -153 

A  Scene  in  New  Zealand 157 

Rainfall  Map  of  Australia       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .161 

Australian  Bush  Scenery Facing  166 

Group  of  Australian  Natives Facing  168 

A  New  Zealand  River ,        .         .         .170 

A  New  Zealand  Garden 172 

Wellington:  New  Zealand .         .         .  175 

A  Papuan  Chief 177 

Scene  in  the  Fiji  Islands Facing  182 

Conical  Hut:  Fiji  Islands Facing  184 

Fiji  Islanders  and  their  Canoes       ......       Facing  186 

Group  of  Tonga  Natives 1 86 

New  Guinea  Huts 187 

A  Papuan  War  Canoe 1 89 

A  New  Guinea  Girl        ........       Facing  192 

New  Zealand  Ferns Facing  198 

Papuan  Drums  or  Spirit  Carvings Facing  202 

Levuka,  Fiji .         .       Facing  206 

British  Columbia :  River  Scene 209 

A  Lake  in  the  Rockies  ..........  214 

Victoria,  Vancouver  Island Facing  216 

A  Catch  of  Fish  on  the  Fraser  River      .         .         .         .         .         .         .219 

Boats  at  the  Mouth  of  Fraser  River Facing  220 

New  Westminster  ...........  222 

Californian  Coast  Scene Facing  224 

View  of  Singapore  Harbour Facing  228 

In  the  Botanical  Gardens  at  Singapore 231 

Malay  Fishers,  Singapore 233. 

Hong  Kong  Harbour Facing  242 

A  North  Borneo  River  ......••••  248 

A  Sarawak  Dyak    .......••••  250 

Sarawak  Dyak  Family  at  Home 252 

Forest  Scene,  British  Borneo 256 

Sea-Dyaks 260- 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

PAGE 

Dusun  Women  wearing  Coils  of  Wire .  261 

A  Dyak  in  Full  War-dress .         .         .  263 

Interior  River  Scene  :  Canoes  and  Huts  of  Borneo  Savages    .       Facing  264 

A  Murut ;  Wild  Man  of  Borneo 266 

A  North  Borneo  Coast  Town ,         .271 

Jolo  Chief  and  Attendants      .        . 275 

View  of  Labuan .        .       Facing  276 

A  Private  Fleet  from  Jolo  arriving  at  Kudat  .         .        .        .        .         .281 

Battak  Women  weaving,  Sumatra 287 

Typical  Landing  Stage  and  Bungalow    .....       Facing  292 

On  the  River,  Samarinda 295 

In  the  Boomplatz,  Banjermassin 297 

The  Morning  Walk        .         . 298 

On  the  Barito  River 299 

Oil  Wells,  Balik  Pappan         .......       Facing  302 

Canal  and  Fortifications,  Banda Facing  306 

Battak  Women 308 

In  a  Battak  Village        .        .        .        .         .        »        .        .         .         .311 

Natives  and  Houses,  Palembang,  Sumatra      .        .    ^    .        .       Facing  314 

River  Scene 315 

Market  Women,  Banjermassin 316 

A  Road  in  the  Javanese  Highlands         .         .        .        .        .         .         .318 

In  the  /Wz-fields 322 

On  the  Road  to  Market          .         .      •  .         ...         .       Facing  326 

Woman  weaving 327 

Bas-reliefs,  Boro-Bodor          .        .        .-  \    .        .        .        .       Facing  330 

Inside  the  Kraton,  Djokja      .        ,     •'. 333 

The  Sultan's  Courtyard,  or  Aloon-Aloon 334 

Javanese  River,  Bridge,  and  Village       ."       .        .         .         .       Facing  338 

A  Javanese  Court  Dancer 338 

A  Malay  River  Scene 341 

Decorating  Sarongs Facing  346 

Typical  Village  and  Padi-fields 352 

A  Bas-relief  from  Boro-Bodor        . 357 

The  Village  Well  .........       Facing  362 

Wayside  Scene  in  Japan        .......       Facing  368 

Japanese  Children 377 

Takau,  Formosa 378 

Half-breed  Pagan  Tribe,  Formosa Facing  382 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Formosa  Savages Facing  384 

Indonesian  Head-hunters,  Formosa Facing  388 

Japanese  Missionary  with  Chinese  and  Pepo-Hwan  Converts          .         .  393 

Keelung,  Formosa 397 

On  the  East  Coast  of  Formosa 400 

Natives,  Canoes,  and  Huts,  Bismarck  Archipelago          ....  403 

A  Papuan      ............  405 

Native  Women  and  Huts,  New  Hebrides       ....       Facing  406 

Native  Dance,  Samoa Facing  408 

South  Sea  Islanders  of  Mixed  Blood Facing  412 

New  Hebrides  Native  in  War  Head-dress 413 

View  in  Tahiti Facing  416 

Christianised  Polynesians  from  Tahiti Facing  418 

Polynesian  Type 419 


INTRODUCTION 


DYAK    HEAD-HUNTING    PARTY 


CHAPTER    I 

THE    STORY    OF    THE    PACIFIC 

IN  the  dim  far-off  ages  of  the  past,  into  which  we  can 
only  peer  vaguely  through  the  researches  of  science,  it 
seems  more  than  probable  that  a  great  number  of  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  were  gathered  into  continents,  and 
that  while  those  on  the  west  formed  part  of  Asia,  those 
on  the  south-west  were  joined  to  Australia.  It  has  been 
conjectured,  moreover,  that  a  great  continent  lay  in 
mid-Pacific,  of  which  the  scattered  islands  of  Polynesia 
are  the  only  remains ;  but  be  that  as  it  may,  the  whole 
subject  is  so  enwrapped  in  the  mist  of  ages  as  to  make 
it  unlikely  that  any  definite  conclusion  can  be  come  to. 

The  line  dividing  the  Asian  and  Australian  groups  of 
islands  is  so  singular  in  its  course  that  it  repays  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  map.  It  is  drawn  between  the  islands 
of  Bali  and  Lombok  and  eastward  of  Celebes  and  the 
Philippines,  so  that  the  Philippines,  Borneo,  Celebes, 
Bali,  Java,  and  Sumatra  are  Asiatic,  and  New  Guinea, 
the  Moluccas,  and  the  chain  from  Timor  to  Lombok 


4  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

belong  to  Australia.  This  division,  unnatural  as  it 
seems  —  for  from  Sumatra  to  Timor  the  islands  pre- 
sent a  chain  unbroken  in  appearance  —  is  warranted 
both  by  the  flora  and  fauna.  The  narrow  but  deep 
strait  between  Bali  and  Lombok  is  the  dividing  line 
between  the  characteristic  species  of  the  two  continents, 
and  this  rule  applies  almost  constantly  to  the  islands  on 
either  side  of  the  line  indicated,  with  allowances  for  arti- 
ficial introduction.  The  island  of  Celebes  alone  pre- 
sents the  phenomenon  of  many  unique  species  of  both 
flora  and  fauna,  and  the  usually  accepted  explanation  is 
that  this  island  was  detached  from  its  parent  continent  at 
an  extremely  remote  period,  when  Asia  and  Australia  had 
been  but  recently  severed.  This  accounts  for  affinities 
to  the  characteristic  species  of  both  continents  while 
many  of  the  most  ordinary  are  entirely  lacking.  Subse- 
quent modifications  in  continental  forms  did  not,  there- 
fore, affect  the  island  of  Celebes.  The  next  to  break  off 
from  Australia  were  the  Moluccas,  and  the  eastern  chain 
of  islands,  traversed  by  a  band  of  volcanoes  to  whose 
eruptions  no  doubt  much  of  their  fragmentary  character 
is  due.  At  a  later  date  New  Guinea  separated  from 
North  Australia,  and  Sumatra  and  Java  detached  them- 
selves from  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

When  these  islands  first  became  inhabited  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say,  but  from  the  wide  area  covered  by  the 
two  races  generally  supposed  to  be  the  aborigines  of 
the  Southern  and  Western  Pacific  it  is  almost  certain 
that  the  peopling  must  have  taken  place  to  some  extent 
before  the  break-up.  The  Asiatic  and  Australian  divi- 
sion already  indicated  also  gives  roughly  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  two  dark-skinned  races  of  the  Pacific  Islands, 
who  must  be  regarded,  despite  affinities,  as  two  distinct 


THE  STORY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


branches  of  the  Ethiopia  family.  Australia  itself  is 
inhabited  by  a  Caucasic  race.  On  the  Asiatic  side 
were  a  race  of  extreme  antiquity,  black-skinned,  prog- 
nathous people,  with  frizzed  hair,  flat  noses,  broad  lips, 
and  many  other  traits 
characteristic  of  the 
negro  race  in  Africa, 
but  smaller,  weaker, 
and  of  a  less  lively 
disposition.  On  the 
other  hand  were  a  race 
of  tall,  strong  men, 
black,  with  extremely 
wiry  and  frizzy  hair, 
hook  noses,  prominent 
eyebrows,  and  a  pecul- 
iarly lively,  excitable 
disposition.  The  for- 
mer are  the  Negritos, 

e  i  i  NEGRITOS 

now     round     only     in 

parts  of  the  Philippines,  where  they  have  inhabited  for 
ages  certain  remote  and  mountainous  districts;  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  where  a  small  number  still  remain  and 
are  known  as  Semangs ;  and  in  the  Andaman  Islands, 
while  in  one  or  two  other  spots  their  influence  can  be 
traced.  The  second  race,  whose  home  is  considered 
to  be  New  Guinea,  are  called  Papuans.  Their  distin- 
guishing characteristics  are  probably  due  to  mixed  blood. 
The  so-called  Melanesians  are  allied  to  them.  They  have 
spread  as  far  as  the  Fiji  Islands  on  the  east,  and  to 
New  Caledonia  on  the  south,  while  there  are  signs  of 
their  influence  throughout  Micronesia.  Into  the  Pacific 
islands  inhabited  by  these  black  races  there  came  at 


6  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

some  uncertain  period  of  time  a  white  or  Caucasian 
people.  They  had  peopled  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia, 
and  thence  branched  out  possibly  through  Japan,  reach- 
ing beyond  the  lands  already  inhabited  by  the  black 
races  until  they  established  themselves  far  out  in  the 
Pacific,  on  the  beautiful  islands  of  Samoa,  thence  spread- 
ing throughout  Polynesia.  They  were  the  ancestors  of 
the  splendid  race  found  in  the  Tonga,  Friendly,  Cook, 
Society,  Marquesas,  Sandwich,  and  many  other  islands. 
They  found  their  way  to  New  Zealand,  where  they 
are  known  as  Maoris.  Their  light  skin,  well-formed 
features,  wavy  hair,  and  fine  figures  are  united  to  many 
graces  of  disposition,  and  their  language,  although  there 
are  numerous  dialects  and  a  number  of  foreign  words 
have  been  incorporated,  is  nevertheless  distinct  from 
any  other  in  use.  Traces  of  this  early  Caucasic  race 
are  still  found  throughout  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia. 
In  Japan  it  is  represented  by  the  Ainus,  but  is  not  found 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago  (except  perhaps  in  two  small 
islands  off  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra),  and  only  exists 
in  a  pure  and  primitive  state  in  the  Eastern  Pacific 
islands,  known  as  Polynesia. 

These  Polynesians  seem  to  possess  a  curiously  one- 
sided civilisation,  for  although  they  build  good  houses, 
make  cloth,  and  practise  other  domestic  arts,  while  their 
women  occupy  a  superior  position  such  as  is  usually 
only  found  with  the  most  civilised  races,  they  are  appar- 
ently uniformly  ignorant  of  pottery-making,  one  of  the 
most  ancient  of  all  the  arts.  But,  unless  they  have 
retrograded  to  a  degree  which  is  hardly  conceivable, 
they  must  have  been  preceded  in  the  islands  by  another 
and  even  more  ancient  race,  which  possessed  the  art  of 
working  in  stone  to  a  degree  far  above  the  ability  of  the 


THE   STORY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 


Polynesians.  These  lost  and  forgotten  races  must  have 
been  the  makers  of  some  very  remarkable  stone  build- 
ings. It  may  be  mentioned  also  that  although  tablets 
covered  with  unknown  hieroglyphics  have  been  found  in 
their  midst,  the  Polynesians  have  no  written  language. 
No  adequate  explanation  has  yet  been  found  for  the 
innumerable  ruins  scattered  over  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  of  which,  per- 
haps, the  most  remarka- 
ble are  in  the  remotest, 
Easter  Island,  the  most 
easterly  of  all  the  Pacific 
Isles,  situated  1400  miles 
beyond  the  next  in  the 
chain  (Pitcairn),  and  2000 
from  the  coast  of  South 
America.  The  extraor- 
dinary extent  and  charac- 
ter of  these  ruins,  which 
include  eighty  to  a  hun- 
dred stone  houses,  deco- 
rated inside  with  figures 
of  birds,  animals,  faces, 
and  geometric  designs 
in  red,  black,  and  white; 

hundreds  of  rude  carvings  on  rocks;  wide  terraces,  a 
hundred  feet  broad,  used  as  platforms  for  three-quarter- 
length  statues  of  figures  wearing  crowns;  wooden  tablets 
covered  with  hieroglyphics,  and  many  other  interesting 
relics  —  these,  when  we  consider  the  isolated  position 
and  the  fact  that  we  have  no  clue  as  to  the  people  who 
wrought  them,  make  Easter  Island  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  No  iron  tools  have  been  found,  but  it 


I'AITAN    TYI'K 


8  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

is  almost  incredible  that  such  work  should  have  been 
done  without  them.  A  gigantic  figure,  found  in  this 
island,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  its  extraor- 
dinary cast  of  countenance,  resembling  no  living  race  of 
mankind,  adds  another  puzzle  to  the  difficult  and  fasci- 
nating question.  A  theory,  only  advanced  because  of 
its  possibility,  since  the  writer  knows  of  no  scientific 
fact  to  support  it,  is  that  from  the  South  American 
kingdoms,  whose  ancient  civilisation  is  a  known  factr 
may  have  come  wanderers  who  settled  in  some  of  the 
islands,  taught  the  people  a  few  of  their  own  arts,  and 
were  gradually  fused  into  the  Caucasian  race,  while  the 
civilisation  they  had  brought  died  out  in  the  third  and 
fourth  generation.  The  only  tradition  current  among 
the  people,  who  are  of  the  Polynesian  race,  is  that  they 
came  originally  from  Rapa  —  one  of  the  Austral  group. 
Extensive  ruins  of  a  slightly  different  character  were 
found  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  Lad  rones  three  and  a 
half  centuries  ago,  and  to-day  these  are  rendered  the 
more  mysterious  by  the  fact  that  none  of  the  natives 
of  the  island  now  remain,  having  been  entirely  extermi- 
nated by  their  conquerors..  If  any  further  evidence  of 
the  remarkable  nature  of  these  ruins  is  wanted,  it  may 
be  added  that  the  size  and  weight  of  some  of  the  stones 
employed,  together  with  the  distance  from  which  they 
must  have  been  transported,  proves  that  the  ancient 
builders  must  have  had  engineering  skill  and  apparatus 
almost  equal  to  those  of  the  builders  of  the  Pyramids. 

We  now  come  to  the  third  period  in  the  story  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific,  and  that  story  begins  to 
emerge  somewhat  from  the  realm  of  mystery.  The 
Mongol  invasion  swept  across  Asia,  down  through  Tar- 
tary  to  Indo-China,  and  fusing  partially  with  the  white 


THE   STORY   OF  THE    PACIFIC  9 

race  on  the  coast  it  sent  forth  emigrants  of  a  mixed 
Caucasian-Mongol  stock.  These  found  an  asylum  in 
the  two  large  islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  spread- 
ing from  the  former  to  the  Philippines,  and  probably 
mingled  with  both  the 
Negritos  and  the  white 
race,  and  later  on  with 
the  Chinese.  It  has  been 
said  already  that  no  race 
of  such  marked  Caucasian 
type  as  the  Polynesian  is 
found  in  Borneo  or  the 
Philippines,  but  they  may 
have  existed  and  been  ab- 
sorbed by  their  succes- 
sors. The  Pre- Malays,  or 
Indonesians,  as  they  have 

J  INDONESIAN   TYPE:     DYAK    HEAD-HUNTER 

been  called,  are  known  in 

Borneo  as  Dyaks,  in  Sumatra  as  Battaks,  and  in  the 
Philippines  under  a  variety  of  tribal  names,  of  which 
Igorrote  is  perhaps  the  most  familiar.  They  are  char- 
acterised by  a  light  copper-coloured  skin,  lank  black 
hair,  and  straight  noses,  and  are  frequently  remarkable 
for  their  supple  yet  sturdy  figures.  The  aborigines  of 
Formosa  belong  to  this  race,  and  here  the  shape  of  the 
features  generally  is  frequently  remarkably  unlike  that 
of  the  Mongolians.  They  are  heathens,  with  a  most 
inchoate  idea  of  religion,  and  distinguished  in  most  of 
their  habitats  as  "  head-hunters."  Only  one  branch,  so 
far  as  known,  has  a  written  language,  and  this  may 
be  partly  due  to  foreign  influence.  The  Battaks,  the 
branch  referred  to,  present  the  extraordinary  anomaly 
of  people  sufficiently  civilised  to  have  a  written  language, 


io  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 

to  practise  weaving  and  working  in  metals,  who  are 
still,  or  were  at  the  time  of  their  discovery,  anthro- 
pophagous. 

The  fourth  period  was  that  of  Malayan  expansion,  the 
Malayan  branch  of  the  Mongol  family  having  evolved 
by  fusion  of  the  Mongol  and  the  former  inhabitants 
of  Southern  Asia,  and  having  presumably  acquired  its 
distinct  characteristics  by  a  sojourn  in  some  particular 
district.  The  typical  Malayan  is  characterised  by  a 
somewhat  slight  frame  with  delicate  extremities,  a  cop- 
per-coloured skin,  lank  black  hair,  short  nose,  slightly 
oblique  eyes,  and  a  mouth  which,  though  prominent  and 
usually  everted,  is  never  fleshy  like  the  negro's.  Where 
was  the  cradle  of  the  Malayan  is  a  question  which  has 
never  yet  received  a  satisfactory  answer.  Many  wit- 
nesses incline  to  the  island  of  Sumatra,  in  which  case  it 
must  be  supposed  that  the  founders  of  the  race  spread 
there  from  the  continent,  and  thence  gradually  to  adja- 
cent islands,  beginning,  no  doubt,  with  Java.  Although 
the  Malay  language  possesses  several  forms  of  writing, 
many  of  extreme  antiquity,  it  has  no  literature  of  his- 
toric value,  and  despite  many  supposed  derivations, 
the  word  "  Malay," 1  or  properly  "  malayu,"  remains  a 
mystery.  It  is  only  used  by  the  people  themselves 
in  conjunction  with  a  noun  —  orang-malayu  (Malay 
man),  tauch-malayu  (Malay  land).  From  Sumatra  to 
Java  was  but  a  step,  and  in  that  island  the  Malays 
developed  and  acquired  a  civilisation  higher  than  that 

1  Professor  Keane  points  out  that  "  Malay "  can  only  with  accuracy  be 
applied  to  the  natives  of  the  Peninsula  and  parts  of  Sumatra.  The  Javanese, 
Filipinos,  etc.,  are  separate  branches  of  the  same  family,  and  are  therefore 
"Malayans."  The  distinction,  however,  need  not  be  preserved  in  this 
book. 


OCEANIC-CAUCASIAN   OR  POLYNESIAN  TYPE:    GIRL  FROM   TAHITI 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   PACIFIC  n 

attained    by  any    other  branch  of  their  race.     The  first 
mention  of  the  name  Malay  occurs  in  Ptolemy,  writing 
about  1 30  A.D.     He  repeats  information  probably  derived 
from  Hindoo  traders  as  to  a  country  called  "  Malay-kolon," 
a  name  probably  given    by  some    sea-faring   Malay    in 
conversation  with  the  Hindoos,  and  implying  simply  his 
(Malay)  country — either  the  pen- 
insula,   Sumatra,    or    some    other 
island.       The     fact    that    in    this 
century  the   clove,  found  only  in 
the   Moluccas,   makes   its   appear- 
ance among  the  imports  of  Rome, 
shows  that  Hindoo  or  Arab  traders        " 
had  penetrated   to  those   islands; 
and  in  doing  so  they  must  have 

Come    into     Contact    with    Some    of         MALAY  TYPE  :  FROM  THE 

,  TV /r     1  1  «.       •  MALAY   PENINSULA 

the  sea-faring    Malays,    but    it  is 

supposed  that  even  prior  to  this  traders  must  have  come 
to  the  Malayan  countries  for  tin,  and  probably  for  tor- 
toise-shell. About  the  fifth  century  also  began  a  very 
important  migration.  The  persecutions  of  the  Brahmins 
drove  a  number  of  Buddhists  from  their  native  land,  and 
these  descended  on  the  nearest  and  most  fertile  of  the 
Indian  Isles,  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra  and  Java, 
where  they  obtained  a  firm  hold.  It  is  not  certain 
at  what  period  the  Malay  emigrations  began.  In 
determining  this  question  the  evidence  of  language  is 
hardly  sufficient.  The  proportion  of  Sanscrit  words 
decreases  proportionately  with  the  distance  from  Java, 
but  that  might  be  due  to  other  influences,  since  in 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  Peninsula  alone  does  the  Malay 
exist  as  a  member  of  a  preponderating  race;  elsewhere 


12 


THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


MALAYAN   TYPE:    FROM   JAVA 


he  is  merely  a  sojourner  dwelling  on  the  coast,  having 

driven  the  aborigines  inland.     In  the  Philippines  espe- 

^^^^^  cially  his  blood  has  been 

mingled  with  that  of  the 
aborigines,  Indonesians, 
Arabs,  Chinese,  Japan- 
ese, and  Europeans,  and 
his  language  has  lost  in 
purity  proportionately, 
so  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  say  whether  the 
small  number  of  Sanscrit 
words  may  not  have 
been  introduced  later. 
Religious  customs  give 
little  clue  since  Moham- 
medanism and  Christi- 
anity practically  divide  Malaysia,  but  from  other  evidences 
the  Philippines  appear  to  have  been  colonised  by  a  very 
early  Malayan  wave. 

At  this  period  there  is  a  blank  of  many  centuries, 
broken  only  by  a  vague  reference  to  Java  in  Chinese 
chronicles.  During  these  centuries  the  Malays  seem 
to  have  split  into  three  races.  Firstly,  a  semi-savage 
and  wandering  tribe  now  found  only  on  the  Peninsula 
and  in  parts  of  Sumatra;  secondly,  a  sea-going  race 
called  "  sea-gipsies,"  who  spread  all  over  the  archipelago, 
became  notable  pirates,  and  dividing  into  many  tribes 
became  known  by  various  names  —  Bugis  in  Celebes, 
Bajaus  in  Borneo,  and  so  forth ;  thirdly,  the  civilised  and 
settled  Malays  who  became  husbandmen  and  fishermen, 
founded  kingdoms,  evolved  several  written  languages, 
and  acquired  a  far  from  contemptible  amount  of  civilisa- 


THE   STORY  OF  THE  PACIFIC  13 

tion.  The  Javanese,  absorbing  first  the  religion  and 
culture  brought  by  the  Hindoos,  rose  to  power,  went  over 
to  Sumatra,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Palembang, 
and  from  that  place  colonised  the  kingdom  of  Menang- 
kabo,  situated  in  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  part  of 
Sumatra.  From  this  kingdom  the  traditions  of  many 
Malay  tribes  declare  their  ancestors  to  have  come.  At 
the  zenith  of  Hindoo  ascendancy,  about  the  thirteenth  or 
fourteenth  century,  or  a,  little  earlier,  were  built  those 
marvellous  temples  with  which  Java  and  Sumatra  are 
studded.  Ruins  of  a  similar  nature  are  to  be  seen  in 
Borneo,  but  the  word  "  ruins "  by  no  means  describes 
those  of  the  two  Dutch  Indian  Isles,  for  while  the 
temples  are  sometimes  far  from  complete  there  are 
hundreds  of  carvings  in  a  wonderful  state  of  preserva- 
tion, and  executed  with  a  skill  and  unconventionality 
which  make  them  at  times  startlingly  lifelike.  They 
are  obviously  the  work  of  Hindoo  artists  and  represent 
characteristically  Hindoo  types,  while  the  motif  is  always, 
of  course,  the  history  and  worship  of  Buddha;  never- 
theless, they  portray  men  and  women  such  as  are  seen 
to-day  in  the  streets  and  bazaars  of  India.  They 
play  on  well-known  instruments,  they  dance  weird  dances, 
twisting  the  arms  and  turning  the  hands  back,  they  ride 
elephants,  they  wave  palm-leaf  fans,  they  sit  cross-legged 
(not  on  their  heels  like  the  Mongol  and  his  cousin  the 
Malay),  and  finally  they  are  seen  braving  stormy  waters 
in  wonderfully  constructed  ships,  which  we  may  take 
to  be  exactly  those  in  which  communication  was  carried 
on  between  Hindustan  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago  at 
a  period  when  Great  Britain  was  at  the  very  beginning 
of  her  career  as  a  Sea  Power. 


I4  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

From  Java,  or  from  Javanese  settlements,  came  the 
founders  of  Singapore  and  Malacca ;  tradition  assigns 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  to  the  latter,  but  the 
Portuguese,  who  visited  it  first  in  1 508,  say  that  it  had 
then  been  established  only  about  250  years. 

The  Hindoo  dominion  in  Java  lasted  till  the  fifteenth 
century,  though  it  began  to  decline  before  that.  The 
stimulus  given  to  Arab  traders  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  by  the  Crusades  took  them  further  and 
further  afield,  and  as  they  had  established  a  trade  with 
China  as  early  as  850  A.D.  there  is  no  doubt  that  by  the 
thirteenth  century  they  were  well  acquainted  with  the 
islands  of  the  Western  Pacific.  Their  religious  cam- 
paign was  not  of  a  missionary  character,  so  far  as  can 
be  ascertained,  but  arose  out  of  the  fact  that  many 
Mohammedan  merchants,  Arabian  and  Persian,  settled  in 
the  archipelago,  intermarried  with  the  natives,  and  gradu- 
ally spread  their  religion.  The  date  given  for  the  adop- 
tion of  Islam  by  the  Achinese  is  1206,  but  it  was  not 
till  1478  on  the  downfall  of  Majapahit,  the  last  Hindoo 
kingdom  in  Java,  that  the  religion  of  the  Prophet  be- 
came virtually  that  of  the  whole  civilised  Malay  race. 
It  crept  upwards  and  outwards  by  slow  degrees,  and 
reached  the  island  of  Mindanao  in  the  Philippines  just 
before  the  arrival  of  Christian  priests  on  the  same  scene 
in  the  first  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Against 
Islam  it  seems  as  though  no  other  religion  can  stand 
in  Oriental  lands,  and  despite  the  very  rapid  conversion 
to  Christianity  of  all  the  other  islands  of  the  Philippines 
the  south  of  Mindanao  to  this  day  contains  followers  of 
the  Prophet,  while  the  Sulu  Archipelago  is  almost 
entirely  Mohammedan.  Throughout  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, however,  Mohammedanism  is  of  the  easiest  type 


THE   STORY   OF  THE   PACIFIC  15 

and  the  people  retain  many  old  heathen  customs,  while 
in  Java  it  is  not  uncommon,  despite  the  fact  that  Buddh- 
ism has  been  dead  for  400  years,  to  find  little  votive 
offerings  on  the  shrines  of  the  ruined  temples. 

We  now  reach  the  period  when  authentic  history  takes 
the  place  of  legend  and  induction.  It  seems  strange 
that  so  many  centuries  should  have  elapsed  without  any 
further  development  after  the  introduction  of  the  clove 
into  Rome,  which  proves  a  certain  intercourse  between 
Europe  and  these  Indian  Isles,  and  almost  more  strange 
that  the  Chinese  should  never  have  ventured  there  in 
search  of  trade.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
however,  they  certainly  visited  the  Moluccas,  and  from 
that  time  onwards  their  intercourse  must  have  been  fairly 
regular.  As  they  are  not  a  warlike  people  they  never 
went  abroad  except  to  countries  where  a  certain  amount 
of  peace  and  settled  government  gave  opportunities  for 
trading,  and  wherever  they  traded  they  showed  a  tendency 
to  settle  and  intermarry  with  the  natives,  without  losing 
in  any  way  their  national  peculiarities  or  strong  feeling 
for  their  mother  country.  The  first  European  to  visit  the 
Far  East  was  the  redoubtable  Marco  Polo,  in  1291,  and 
from  remarks  made  by  him  it  seems  that  the  Chinese 
were  then  still  ignorant  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  He 
himself  gives  a  description  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  evidently 
more  from  hearsay  than  knowledge.  During  a  voyage 
with  a  Chinese  fleet  from  China  to  Europe  he  was  obliged 
by  the  monsoons  to  stay  five  months  in  the  former 
island,  and  he  declares  that  he  visited  various  districts, 
but  it  seems  likely  from  internal  evidence  that  his  move- 
ments were  circumscribed  by  the  savagery  of  the  natives, 
and  that  his  account  of  the  island  was  taken  from  the 
Arabians  who  doubtless  accompanied  his  fleet  as  pilots. 


1 6  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Java,  as  mentioned  by  him,  is  merely  a  name  given  to 
the  whole  archipelago,  and  Sumatra  he  calls  Java  minor. 
He  mentions  Malacca  as  an  island  town,  with  a  flourish- 
ing trade. 

Two  hundred  years  later,  soon  after  the  discovery  of 
the  Cape  route,  the  Portuguese,  having  already  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Goa,  and  hearing  of  the  great  trade 
done  in  Malacca,  fitted  out  a  fleet  to  visit  it.  They  were 
unfortunate  in  their  dealings  with  the  natives,  and  were 
driven  away,  returning,  however,  in  two  years  time,  and 
capturing  the  city  after  a  determined  resistance.  This 
was  in  1511.  They  had  already  heard  much  of  both 
Java  and  Sumatra,  for  the  traveller  Ludovic  Varthema 
visited  those  islands  in  1500  and  also  the  Moluccas,  and 
gives  a  pretty  faithful  description  of  them.  At  the  time 
of  the  first  visit  to  Malacca  one  of  the  expedition,  Magel- 
lan, landed  in  Sumatra  with  Lopez  de  Sequiera,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Rajah,  while  Sequiera  apparently 
went  on  and  visited  the  Moluccas.  From  this  time 
onward  the  Portuguese  constantly  sought  to  obtain  a 
footing  in  Sumatra,  but  without  success,  and  an  expedi- 
tion was  also  sent  in  1511  to  take  possession  of  the  Spice 
Islands.  This  expedition  only  got  as  far  as  Amboina, 
and  as  the  clove  had  been  introduced  there  that  island 
was  annexed,  but  it  was  not  till  1521  that  the  real  Spice 
Islands  were  taken  by  the  Portuguese. 

The  Portuguese  Magellan  appears  to  have  been  dis- 
contented with  the  reward  given  for  his  services,  and 
also  to  have  failed  in  obtaining  the  support  of  the  King 
for  his  project  of  sailing  round  the  world.  Accordingly 
he  offered  his  services  to  Charles  V.  of  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal lost  the  honour  which  his  subsequent  achievements 
would  have  added  to  her  history.  In  August  1519  he 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   PACIFIC  17 

left  Seville,  and,  sailing  westwards,  discovered  the  straits 
which  bear  his  name,  and  on  March  6,  1521,  sighted  the 
Ladrones.  A  few  months  later  he  entered  the  harbour 
of  Cebu,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  killed  in  an  affray 
with  the  natives.  In  his  company  were  Barbosa,  who 
had  previously  visited  and  described  many  of  the  East- 
ern islands,  and  Pigafetti,  an  Italian.  The  former  was 
murdered  by  the  natives  of  Cebu,  the  latter  continued 
the  voyage  and  visited  Borneo,  or  rather  the  State  of 
Brunei,  then  paramount  in  the  island,  which,  he  says,  had 
reached  an  advanced  state  of  civilisation  and  prosperity. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  at  this  era  are 
described  as  also  possessing  a  certain  amount  of  civilisa- 
tion, using  written  characters  and  working  iron  and  gold. 
They  appear  to  have  been  easy  converts  to  Christianity, 
since  the  inhabitants  of  Cebu  were  all  converted  within 
eight  days  !  A  wooden  cross  still  standing  at  Cebu  as  a 
commemoration  of  this  missionary  coup  is  said  to  be  the 
original  one  planted  by  Magellan. 

A  great  stimulus  was  naturally  given  by  the  discov- 
eries of  Magellan  to  further  explorations  in  the  Pacific. 
In  1526  New  Guinea  was  first  sighted,  but,  though 
coasted  and  described  on  the  north,  in  the  years 
1528  and  1546,  by  two  other  explorers  who  gave  it 
its  two  names,  Papua  and  New  Guinea,  it  remained  for 
half  a  century  more  a  terra  incognita,  being  regarded  as 
part  of  a  great  continent.  The  discoverer  of  New 
Guinea,  Jorge  de  Maneses,  also  visited  Borneo,  and  the 
Portuguese  began  to  trade  with  that  island.  In  1565 
one  of  the  greatest  events  in  the  history  of  the  Pacific 
took  place,  for  Legaspi  landed  in  Luzon,  and  within  six 
years  conquered  the  whole  archipelago,  a  feat  in  which 
he  was  largely  assisted  by  the  Augustinian  fathers. 


i8 

Although  there  are  no  details  regarding  its  discovery, 
it  is  certain  that  during  this  century  Australia  became 
known,  being  represented  on  a  French  map  under  the 
name  Australis  terra  and  described  in  a  Dutch  book. 

In  1595  the  Dutch  arrived  on  the  scene,  and  landing, 
first  in  Java  and  then  in  Sumatra,  began  to  trade.  A 
few  years  later  they  penetrated  to  Celebes,  and  in  1602 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company  was  founded  and  began 
to  establish  factories  and  settlements  in  all  the  islands. 

In  1600  the  English  appeared,  and  thus  four  European 
nations  were  competing  in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  Six 
years  later  the  Spaniard  Torres  discovered  that  New 
Guinea  was  an  island,  and  took  possession  in  the  name 
of  Spain.  The  Dutch  were  only  a  little  way  behind, 
and  in  the  same  year  visited  the  coasts  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  and  gave  many  names  which  still  remain.  In 
the  same  year  the  Society  Islands  were  discovered  by 
Spain,  and  a  Spanish  settlement  was  planted  in  the  New 
Hebrides,  on  the  island  called  Espiritu  Santa.  In  1610 
the  Dutch  made  their  first  bid  for  Colonial  possession  by 
building  a  fort  where  Batavia  now  stands,  and,  although 
destroyed  by  the  natives  with  the  assistance  of  the  Eng- 
lish, this  was  the  beginning  of  the  Dutch  dominion  in 
the  East.  From  that  time  they  were  continually  at  war 
with  the  native  states,  and  in  1677  acquired  Jacatra, 
after  which  they  went  on  steadily,  till  by  1830,  after  five 
great  wars  and  many  small  ones,  they  were  in  undis- 
puted possession  of  Java. 

The  Portuguese  lost  ground  slowly  but  surely.  Tidor 
and  Ternate,  belonging  to  the  Molucca  group,  were 
taken  by  Spain  in  1606,  while  the  Dutch  soon  after  con- 
cluded a  treaty  which  practically  gave  them  a  monopoly 
of  the  trade  in  cloves.  In  1641,  after  more  than  one 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   PACIFIC  19 

attempt,  they  captured  Malacca,  and  in  1681  the 
Moluccas  finally  became  the  property  of  Holland. 
Twenty  years  before  this  the  celebrated  Admiral  Van 
Dam  had  ejected  the  Portuguese  from  the  Celebes,  so 
that  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  saw  Portugal 
the  pioneer  of  Europe  in  the  Eastern  seas,  reduced  to 
one  small  settlement  on  the  island  of  Timor,  where  they 
remain  to  this  day,  their  principal  town  being  known 
as  Deli,  and  described  by  recent  travellers  as  miserable 
and  decayed.  This  settlement  would  probably  have 
been  abandoned  long  since  were  it  not  for  a  certain 
trade  with  the  other  remnant  of  Portuguese  pos- 
sessions on  the  mainland  of  China,  —  Macao.  It  can- 
not be  said  of  the  Dutch,  however,  that  they  always 
acted  the  part  of  cuckoos  in  the  East,  for  in  1642  and 
1644,  under  the  auspices  of  Van  Dieman,  the  gov- 
ernor-general of  Java,  Abel  Tasman  performed  two 
voyages  in  which  he  discovered  Van  Dieman's  land 
and  Tasmania,  the  Friendly  Isles,  and  New  Zealand. 
The  Dutch  also  penetrated  to  Formosa,  where  they 
established  a  flourishing  colony  in  1624,  but  were 
expelled  by  the  pirate  Koxinga  some  thirty-six  years 
later. 

An  amusing  incident  occurred  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  an  English  embassy  from 
James  I.  came  to  the  King  of  Achin,  in  Sumatra.  The 
ambassador  describes  with  much  admiration  the  wealth 
and  power  of  this  monarch,  and  reports  his  request  for 
two  English  women  to  be  sent  out  as  wives,  with  the 
remark  that  if  they  had  children  it  would  be  a  great 
advantage  to  British  traders  coming  to  that  country. 
In  1685  the  British  established  a  factory  at  Benkulen, 
in  Sumatra,  and  they  also  began  to  trade  with  Borneo. 


20  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

The  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  saw  them  ex- 
pelled from  Banjermassin,  which  had  been  their  principal 
port  of  call  in  Borneo,  and  it  was  not  till  twenty-six  years 
later,  in  1733,  that  European  traders  were  able  to  return. 
In  that  year  the  Dutch  came  back,  and  fifty  years  later 
obtained  possession  of  Banjermassin  and  finally  of  all 
South  Borneo. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  many  discoverers 
came  on  the  scenes.  Captain  Cook,  in  several  voyages 
between  the  years  1769  and  1775,  discovered  and  named 
many  of  the  island  groups  and  the  east  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, where  he  hoisted  the  British  flag,  and  finally  lost 
his  life  in  the  Sandwich  Isles. 

The  story  of  the  Pacific  Islands  now  resolves  itself 
into  a  struggle  between  Britain  and  Holland  for  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  while  Spain  remained  in  undisputed 
possession  of  the  Philippines.  The  growing  commercial 
power  of  Britain  in  the  East  made  her  a  formidable 
rival,  though  Holland  in  territorial  acquisition  had  a 
start  of  1 20  years  and  was  already  established  in  Java, 
Borneo,  the  Moluccas,  Celebes,  and  numerous  other 
islands  of  less  importance.  Both  countries,  it  must  be 
noted,  worked  their  way  to  Colonial  empire  by  means  of 
chartered  companies,  the  British  East  India  Company 
being  modelled  on  the  Dutch,  and  chartered  two  years 
later  than  its  prototype.  The  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany, during  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
had  founded  a  settlement  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
used  by  their  ships  as  a  place  of  call  and  refreshment 
on  their  way  to  the  East  Indies.  This  settlement  suf- 
fered a  good  deal  from  the  mismanagement  and  corrup- 
tion which  seem  to  have  crept  into  the  Company's 
administration,  and  the  same  causes  weakened  the  hands 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   PACIFIC  21 

of  Holland  in  the  East.  In  1780  Great  Britain,  on  the 
discovery  that  Holland  had  been  furnishing  aid  to  the 
rebellious  colonists  in  North  America,  declared  war 
with  her,  and  attacks  were  at  once  made  on  the  coveted 
islands  of  the  East,  which  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany, then  in  a  state  of  collapse,  were  unable  to  repel. 
As  for  Holland,  or  the  United  Netherlands  as  she  was 
called,  she  was  herself  torn  by  internal  dissensions.  The 
Republican  armies  of  France  overran  the  country,  the 
Stadtholder  fled  to  England,  and  the  Republic  of  Batavia 
was  constructed  out  of  the  debris.  To  avoid  the  loss  of 
all  their  possessions  in  the  East  the  Batavian  Republic 
bought  out  the  moribund  East  India  Company,  but 
Java,  the  Spice  Islands,  Celebes,  and  other  Dutch  posses- 
sions had  already  passed  into  the  hands  of  Britain. 

The  first  and  only  British  Governor  of  Java  was 
Stamford  RafHes,  a  man  who  had  worked  his  way  from 
the  position  of  a  clerk  in  the  East  India  House  to  be 
deputy  secretary  in  the  island  of  Penang,  where,  through 
the  friendship  of  Dr.  Leyden,  he  became  thoroughly 
conversant  with  the  Malay  character  and  language. 
This  knowledge  led  to  his  appointment  as  secretary  to 
an  expedition  to  Java,  and  eventually  to  his  becoming 
Lieutenant-Governor.  A  man  of  unbounded  activity 
and  great  ability,  he  instituted  great  reforms  in  Java,  but 
was  not  altogether  successful  and  was  recalled  after 
four  years.  In  1819  he  was  responsible  for  the  founda- 
tion of  Singapore,  which  at  that  time  was  a  forest- 
covered  island  with  merely  a  village  of  Malay  fishermen, 
the  concession  being  obtained  from  the  Sultan  of  Johore. 
The  dominion  of  England  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
was  merely  a  temporary  affair,  and  the  result  of  a  long 
chain  of  events  made  inevitable  by  the  Napoleonic  wars. 


22  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

The  Batavian  Republic  was  entirely  under  the  thumb 
of  France,  and  France  and  England  were  at  death  grips 
with  each  other.  The  Battle  of  Waterloo,  in  1815,  gave 
the  quietus  to  the  power  of  Napoleon,  and  in  the  gen- 
eral settling  up  which  followed  the  Dutch  received  back 
their  East  Indian  Empire,  while  the  English  were 
assured  in  their  possession  of  the  Cape  and  certain 
South  American  colonies  on  the  payment  of  six  million 
sterling.  In  1824  the  town  of  Malacca  was  exchanged 
for  Benkulen,  in  Sumatra,  where  the  English  had  been 
long  established. 

This  readjustment  left  unappropriated  a  number  of  the 
Pacific  Islands  already  known,  but  an  important  agency 
was  brought  to  bear  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  the  form  of  missionary  and  exploring  expedi- 
tions. Catholicism  had  been  active  for  two  centuries 
in  the  Philippines,  but  it  is  chiefly  to  Protestantism  that 
the  earliest  conversions  among  the  more  remote  islands 
are  due ;  and  since  that  time  the  work  has  been  actively 
pursued  by  English,  French,  and  American  missions 
of  all  denominations,  until  of  the  great  island  groups  of 
the  Pacific  eight  speak  the  English  language  more  or 
less,  are  instructed  in  the  Christian  religion,  and  live 
under  the  influence  of  white  priests  or  their  native 
subordinates.  Besides  these  groups,  of  which  six  are 
now  annexed  by  Great  Britain  and  two  are  under  the 
protection  of  the  United  States  and  Germany,  there  are 
many  smaller  and  more  isolated  islands  where  English- 
speaking  missionaries  practically  rule  supreme.  All 
these  islands  with  the  exception  of  Fiji  belong  to  the 
Polynesian  group  and  are  inhabited  by  that  fair,  tall, 
intelligent  race  supposed  to  be  of  Caucasian  stock. 
They  are  modified  by  exigencies  of  existence  and  by 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   PACIFIC  23 

intermarriage  with  various  races,  Papuan,  Malay,  and 
in  some  cases  South  American,  for  some  of  their  islands 
were  undoubtedly  visited  by  the  galleons  which  for 
centuries  plied  between  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Manila,  be- 
sides private  craft  from  the  South  American  coast. 

The  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  which  saw 
the  return  to  Holland  of  the  Dutch  colonies,  witnessed 
also  the  beginning  of  that  activity  in  exploring  the  coasts 
of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  of  which  the  story  is  told 
later  on.  Notable  dates,  too,  are  those  of  the  founding 
of  Singapore  in  1819,  the  cession  of  the  island  of  Hong 
Kong  in  1843,  the  appointment  of  Sir  James  Brooke  as 
Rajah  of  Sarawak  in  1841,  the  acquisition  of  Labuan  as 
a  Crown  colony  in  1846,  and  the  protection  practically 
extended  over  the  Malay  States  in  1871.  In  the  early 
eighties  came  the  rush  for  colonies  by  the  Great  Powers, 
who  suddenly  awoke  to  the  fact  that  very  little  of  the 
world  remained  to  be  appropriated.  Germany  flung 
herself  into  the  arena  and  acquired  in  the  Pacific  the 
northeastern  portion  of  New  Guinea,  the  Carolines, 
Bismarck  Archipelago,  and  part  of  the  Samoan  group. 
France  had  already  taken  New  Caledonia,  as  a  reprisal 
for  the  murder  there  of  a  survey  party.  She  had  also 
acquired  the  Loyalty  Islands,  the  Austral  group,  the  Mar- 
quesas and  Society  Islands,  the  last  including  the  beauti- 
ful Tahiti.  Alarmed  by  these  continual  expansions  the 
Australian  colonists  insisted  that  Great  Britain  should 
occupy  the  southeastern  part  of  New  Guinea,  on  the 
west  coast  of  which  Holland  had  established  herself  half 
a  century  before.  Fiji  was  originally  colonised  from  Nor- 
folk Island,  but  taken  over  as  a  Crown  colony  in  1874. 
Other  groups  under  British  protection  are  the  Union, 
Ellice,  Hervey,  and  Tonga  Islands  in  Polynesia;  the 


24  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Gilbert  in  Micronesia,  and  several  isolated  islands. 
These  were  all  annexed  between  the  years  1870-1892. 
In  1882  the  British  North  Borneo  Company  took  over 
the  north  of  that  island,  and  Labuan  was  handed  over 
to  it  in  1889,  while  Brunei  and  Sarawak  were  also 
placed  under  British  protection. 

There  is  only  one  more  change  in  the  political  geog- 
raphy of  the  Pacific  to  be  recorded  in  order  to  bring  the 
history  up  to  date.  The  United  States  took  their  first 
step  towards  the  East  by  annexing  Hawaii  and  occu- 
pying Samoa  in  1898.  In  1896  the  Filipinos  in  their 
scattered  archipelago  rose  against  the  friars,  who  were 
practically  governing  them  in  the  name  of  Spain.  The 
movement  gathered  strength,  and  the  conflict  continued 
until,  with  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  Spain  and 
America  over  the  Cuban  question,  a  third  factor  appeared 
on  the  scene.  At  first  the  Filipinos  regarded  the  United 
States  as  a  deliverer,  but  on  discovering  that  there  was 
no  intention  to  quit  the  islands  as  soon  as  Spain  was 
disposed  of,  the  Filipinos  organised  another  insurrection, 
which  has  taken  over  three  years  to  subdue,  and  is  hardly 
over  at  the  time  of  writing. 

In  this  brief  sketch  of  what  may  be  termed  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  Pacific  it  has  been  impossible  to  include  any 
account  of  the  American  littoral,  Japan,  or  Formosa,  or 
of  the  evolution  of  Australasia.  A  description  of  these, 
however,  will  be  found  in  other  parts  of  the  book. 


THE    UNITED   STATES    IN   THE 
PACIFIC 


THE   GOLDEN   GATE,   SAN   FRANCISCO 

CHAPTER    II 

THE    EXPANSION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

THE  expansion  of  the  United  States  is  no  new  thing. 
It  began  within  twenty  years  of  the  birth  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and  from  an  area  of  827,844  square  miles  in  1782, 
on  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  the  colonies  and  the 
mother  country,  it  has  increased  to  close  on  3,600,000 
square  miles.  This  enormous  expansion  has  been  carried 
out  at  regular  intervals.  First  came  the  largest  of 
all  her  acquisitions  of  territory,  the  purchase  from 
France  of  Louisiana,  in  1803,  with  which  territory  was 
acquired  Oregon  (which  then  included  the  present 
Oregon  and  Washington,  as  well  as  other  neighbouring 
territories).  Thus  the  United  States  was  carried  to  the 
Pacific,  and  directly  and  indirectly  its  original  area  more 
than  doubled.  The  purchase  of  Florida  from  Spain  fol- 
lowed in  1821,  bringing  the  United  States  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Texas  joined  the  United  States  in  1845,  and 
three  years  later  the  first  Mexican  cession  was  carried 
out,  which  among  other  territories  included  California, 
again  bringing  the  United  States  to  the  Pacific  and  mak- 
ing a  total  coast  length  of  fifteen  hundred  miles.  Five 

27 


28  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

years  later  followed  the  Gadsden  purchase  from  Mexico, 
now  comprising  New  Mexico  and  the  southern  part  of 
Arizona,  and  lastly,  Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia 
in  1867. 

So  far  the  expansion  of  the  United  States  was  entirely 
on  land,  and  moreover  it  was  always  to  contiguous 
territories,  sparsely  peopled,  frequently  almost  empty, 
and  always  with  a  temperate  climate.  For  more  than  a 
hundred  years,  since  the  birth  of  the  nation  in  fact,  the 
energies  of  the  people  had  been  fully  engaged  in  master- 
ing the  resources  of  their  vast  country,  in  spreading 
agriculture,  opening  mines,  laying  down  communications, 
settling  vast  areas  bit  by  bit,  and  educating  the  people. 
Americans  had  got  to  believe  that  they  could  continue, 
as  they  had  begun,  to  live  self-contained  on  their  con- 
tinent, and  it  never  entered  into  their  imaginings  that 
one  day  they  might  feel  impelled  to  make  a  new  depar- 
ture. The  country,  however,  gradually  filled  up,  manu- 
factures grew,  and  the  trading  classes  looked  more  and 
more  to  foreign  markets.  It  became  apparent  that 
openings  must  be  sought  abroad,  and  under  these  cir- 
cumstances Hawaii  was  secured,  then  Samoa,  and  finally 
occurred  the  Spanish-American  war,  when  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  the  Philippines  were  occupied  in  1898.  The 
world  then  learned  that  the  United  States  had  embarked 
on  a  career  of  over-sea  expansion,  and  that  her  foreign 
policy  had  suddenly  changed.  The  change,  however, 
was  not  so  sudden  as  it  seemed,  and  had  been  foreseen 
to  be  inevitable  by  a  few  onlookers,  for  with  the  pressure 
at  home  for  new  markets  expansion  abroad  was  certain 
to  follow  as  a  process  of  nature,  and  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can war  was  but  the  final  act,  the  culmination,  of  a  drama 
which  had  been  enacting  since  the  commencement  of 


THE   EXPANSION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  29 

the  national  existence.  The  proximity  of  the  Spanish 
sovereignty  in  America  had  been  a  source  of  constant 
irritation  to  the  United  States,  interfering  especially 
with  her  commercial  development.  The  two  systems 
were  incompatible  in  such  near  neighbourhood,  and  the 
war  was  but  the  inevitable  end  of  a  century  of  friction 
and  antagonism,  the  occupation  of  the  Philippines  being 
merely  a  more  or  less  unexpected  incident  of  that  rivalry. 

The  United  States  as  a  nation  are  now  beginning  to 
realise  that  they  are  a  world  power,  that  they  possess  many 
thousand  miles  of  sea-coast  (exclusive  of  bays  and  sounds) 
and  unlimited  capacity  for  the  creation  of  sea  power,  and 
that  they  have  a  deep  interest  in  oceanic  expansion. 
Foreign  trade  and  foreign  affairs  have  for  the  first  time 
acquired  dramatic  interest  for  the  people.  The  United 
States,  divided  so  long  between  two  schools,  the  Anti- 
Expansionist  and  Expansionist,  are  now  in  the  main 
agreed  at  least  that  whether  occupation  of  the  Philippines 
could  have  been  avoided  or  not  is  a  question  which  it 
now  serves  no  useful  purpose  to  discuss.  Once  there  it 
is  impossible  to  retire,  and  the  United  States,  estab- 
lished in  the  Philippines,  with  stepping-stones  across  the 
Pacific  at  Hawaii,  Samoa,  and  Guam,  has  been  brought  at 
one  step  into  the  vortex  of  Asiatic-Pacific  rivalries,  and 
must  perforce  play  her  part.  What  that  part  is  likely 
to  be  will  be  indicated  later  on.  For  the  present  it  is 
enough  to  note  that  the  presence  of  the  United  States 
in  the  Pacific,  close  to  China,  Japan,  Russia,  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  and  Australasia,  brings  a  new  factor  to  bear 
upon  the  question  of  the  Pacific,  with  which  the  future 
of  Further  Asia  is  so  closely  allied  —  the  world-problem 
of  the  twentieth  century. 

Regarding  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  the  new  theatre  in 


3o  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

which  the  world  drama  is  to  centre  we  are  at  once 
struck  with  the  dissimilarity  of  its  continental  bounda- 
ries on  east  and  west.  The  Asiatic  coast  is  fringed  with 
islands,  many  of  great  size,  and  that  half  of  the  ocean  is 
thickly  studded  with  small  archipelagoes,  the  coast-line 
is  much  indented,  and  huge  rivers  empty  themselves 
into  almost  enclosed  seas.  The  Asiatic  coast  and 
islands  are  fertile,  richly  vegetated,  and,  despite  the  dif- 
ference in  latitude  between  the  most  northerly  and  the 
most  southern,  there  is  a  strong  family  likeness  in  the 
physical  characteristics  both  of  the  countries  and  their 
people.  When  we  reach  the  Australian  continent,  how- 
ever, all  this  is  changed,  and  when,  with  a  mental  stride, 
we  cross  the  great  ocean  named  "  the  Peaceful "  by  the 
old  explorer  Magellan,  we  find  on  its  American  side 
totally  different  features,  both  geographical  and  racial. 
A  series  of  mountain  chains  runs  from  north  to  south  of 
the  great  twin  continents  of  America,  and  on  the  north- 
ern one,  with  which  we  are  chiefly  concerned,  the  coast 
rises  abruptly,  often  to  sheer  heights,  and  frowns  down 
on  a  smooth,  little-indented  coast-line.  There  are  con- 
sequently few  harbours,  San  Francisco  and  Puget  Sound 
being  the  only  really  deep  and  sheltered  ones  in  United 
States  territory  on  a  coast  of  about  1500  miles  length, 
but  further  north,  in  British  Columbia,  there  are  several 
others,  both  large  and  good.  Owing  to  the  close  prox- 
imity of  the  watershed  to  the  ocean  the  rivers  are  few 
and  comparatively  insignificant,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Yukon  in  Alaska,  which  is,  however,  of  little  prac- 
tical use  owing  to  climatic  conditions.  There  are  no 
islands  on  the  United  States  coast,  and  the  mass  of 
small  archipelagoes  with  which  the  Asiatic  half  of  the 
Pacific  is  gemmed  get  fewer  and  fewer,  until  a  broad 


THE   EXPANSION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  31 

belt  of  absolutely  desert  ocean  is  left  between  them  and 
the  American  coast.  Here  again,  however,  Canada  is 
more  favoured,  and  islands  of  great  extent,  notably  Van- 
couver, fringe  her  coasts,  which  are,  moreover,  broken  into 
deep  bays,  fjords,  and  land-locked  harbours.  The  one 
peculiarity  of  the  American  coast  is  the  long  narrow 
spit  of  land  running  south  which  is  known  as  Lower 
California.  The  Pacific  slope  of  the  United  States  is 
divided  into  the  States  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington. British  Columbia  will  be  treated  of  elsewhere, 
and  Alaska,  the  extreme  northern  territory,  is  outside 
the  scope  of  present  considerations.  Owing  to  physical 
and  political  conditions  the  rest  of  the  American  States 
with  Pacific  coasts  may  be  regarded  as  a  quantite  n'e- 
gligeable,  but  there  remains  one  important  point,  the  pro- 
posed cutting  of  that  thin  neck  of  land  which  unites  the 
Americas ;  a  measure  which  would  largely  discount 
the  natural  features  we  have  been  examining,  fea- 
tures which  have  undoubtedly  done  much  to  isolate  the 
Pacific.  It  is  well  known  that  only  the  discovery  of  gold 
drew  men  across  the  Great  Divide  or  by  way  of  the  isth- 
mus, and  induced  them  to  flock  to  countries  so  remote 
as  were  those  on  the  Pacific  slope  before  improved  com- 
munications by  land  and  sea  linked  them  east  and  west 
with  older  communities.  The  golden  magnet  which  has 
drawn  men  in  thousands  to  and  fro  on  the  face  of  the 
earth — to  California,  to  South  Africa,  to  Australia  — 
has,  however,  been  the  instrument  of  inducing  a  less 
temporary  settlement.  Without  gold  the  West,  as  Amer- 
icans term  it,  might  be  still  unoccupied.  Every  reader 
of  Bret  Harte  knows  the  story  of  California's  early  days ; 
the  mushroom  towns,  the  reign  of  the  six-shooter,  the 
lavish  expenditure,  the  currency  of  gold-dust,  the  violence, 


32  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

the  lawlessness,  and  withal  the  romance  of  a  heroic  age, 
when  men  played  with  their  lives  for  enormous  stakes, 
and  primitive  virtues  shone  more  brightly  in  contrast 
with  primitive  passions.  Nous  avons  change  tout  cela, 
but  a  flavour  of  Bret  Harte  still  hangs  round  the  beautiful 
West,  and  as  the  traveller  enters  the  Golden  Gate,  so 
appropriately  named,  and  sees  for  the  first  time  beautiful, 
splendid,  wicked  San  Francisco  —  the  most  paradoxical 
city  in  a  land  of  contrasts  —  he  feels  at  once  that  in  the 
Orient  he  has  left  behind  the  repose  and  fatalism  of  the 
Pacific  and  her  islands,  and  is  face  to  face  with  a  new 
spirit  and  a  new  world.  The  dominant  note  of  Ameri- 
canism is  its  keen  receptivity,  and  as  one  makes  one's 
first  observations  in  the  great  city  of  the  Pacific  slope 
it  is  this  which  arrests  our  attention,  for  we  find  that 
this  young  city,  in  a  young  State,  the  offshoot  of  a 
young  nation,  has  swept  together  not  only  men  of  all 
nations,  but  their  ideas  and  methods,  and  adapting  them 
to  her  own  use  has  produced  a  splendid,  if  heterogene- 
ous, whole. 

Outside  the  gold-mines,  California,  to  English  ears, 
usually  suggests  two  ideas  —  canned  (or  as  we  call  it 
"  tinned  ")  fruit,  and  consumptive  patients.  This  is  per- 
haps a  little  unfair  to  a  country  which  sends  us  wheat, 
wine,  and  tinned  salmon,  which  exports  timber  to  South 
Africa,  and  supplies  a  great  portion  of  the  Asiatic  and 
the  European  world  with  fruit.  California,  indeed,  is  one 
of  the  larders  of  the  world,  as  well  as  one  of  its  sanatoria, 
and  must  certainly  benefit  largely  by  the  opening  of 
new  markets  in  the  Pacific  and  the  increase  of  oversea 
traffic.  One  great  need  hitherto  has  been  fuel  for 
steamers,  and  this  will  be  partially  met  by  an  increase 
in  the  oil  production,  while  the  lack  of  water  will  be 


THE   EXPANSION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  33 

remedied  by  utilisation  of  the  drainage  of  watersheds 
and  the  application  of  new  methods  of  electricity.  A 
consequent  improvement  in  mining  results  is  there- 
fore hoped  for.  All  these  improvements  were  highly 
necessary,  for  like  all  districts  suddenly  populated  by  a 
gold  rush  California  showed  a  tendency  to  "  slump " 
when  fresh  fields  attracted  her  population  elsewhere ;  but 
she  has  other  resources  besides  her  minerals,  to  which, 
as  has  already  been  said,  recent  developments  will  act  as 
a  stimulus.  A  pressing  necessity  is  that  of  a  general 
system  of  irrigation,  especially  in  the  south  of  California, 
where  continued  droughts,  followed  by  sudden  storms, 
play  havoc  with  the  crops,  and  in  the  heavily  timbered 
regions  further  north  more  care  should  be  bestowed  on 
forestry,  which  receives  so  much  attention  in  Europe 
and  notably  in  India.  The  enormous  area  of  the  State 
(one-fourth  larger  than  that  of  the  United  Kingdom)  and 
its  extended  position  are  great  difficulties,  especially 
when  we  remember  that  its  actual  population  is  only 
1,500,000,  of  which  San  Francisco  contains  some 
350,000. 

This  subject  of  population  brings  us  face  to  face  for 
the  first  time  with  one  of  the  greatest  problems  we  have 
to  discuss  in  this  book,  and  it  was  actually  in  San  Fran- 
cisco that  the  question  first  appeared.  The  white  man 
has  taken  up  his  position  in  certain  countries  bordering 
the  Pacific.  The  United  States,  Canada,  New  Zealand, 
Australia  —  these  he  found  sparsely  populated,  and  has 
made  his  own  in  word  and  fact,  while  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago  and  the  smaller  Pacific  islands  he  has  estab- 
lished his  paramountcy  over  more  or  less  yielding  races. 
From  Asia,  however,  comes  a  swarm  of  yellow  men.  At 
first  they  are  useful  —  they  help  to  build  the  railroads, 


34  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

work  the  mines  and  generally  develop  the  land  —  but 
by  degrees  they  become  undesirable  citizens  in  more 
ways  than  one,  and  it  is  impossible  to  get  rid  of  them. 
How  to  do  without  the  Chinaman  is  therefore  a  problem 
which  will  crop  up  constantly  in  these  pages  under  vary- 
ing conditions,  and  indirectly  it  involves  the  whole  vexed 
question  of  alien  immigration,  which  is  becoming  of  vital 
and  pressing  importance  in  view  of  the  surplus  popula- 
tion in  some  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  growing  ten- 
dency among  new  communities  to  close  their  doors.  On 
every  side  we  hear  the  same  cry :  "  America  for  the 
Americans!"  "A  White  Australia!"  "Africa  for  the 
Afrikander ! "  and  we  are  constrained  to  wonder  Uncom- 
fortably why  the  Orientals,  against  whom  these  edicts 
are  chiefly  framed,  should  not  reply  with  "  China  for  the 
Chinese ! "  (as  they  certainly  would  if  they  could),  or 
"  Japan  for  the  Japanese !  "  (as  they  probably  will).  The 
paradox  is  that,  simultaneously  with  this  passion  for 
exclusion,  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  bent  on  breaking  down 
all  barriers,  in  sweeping  before  him  all  obstructions, 
until  the  whole  Pacific  is  free  and  open  to  his  trade,  and 
the  ships  of  the  world  are  plying  busily  all  over  the  long 
silent  ocean. 

At  present,  so  far  as  the  United  States  are  concerned, 
Chinese  immigration  has  been  effectively  checked,  and 
along  the  whole  Pacific  slope  will  be  by  degrees  more 
and  more  restricted ;  under  these  conditions  the  Chinese 
may  continue  to  be  a  useful  element  and  will  not  seri- 
ously menace  the  livelihood  of  the  white  man.  With 
the  Japanese,  however,  who  have  of  late  shown  a  distinct 
tendency  to  migrate,  and  are  largely  employed  in  fruit- 
picking  in  California,  it  is  a  different  matter.  China 
cannot  at  present  retaliate ;  Japan  can  and  doubtless  will. 


THE    EXPANSION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  35 

Little  can  be  said  here  of  the  two  other  States  on  the 
Pacific  slope,  Oregon  and  Washington,  save  that  they 
exhibit  the  go-ahead  methods  of  the  Americans  in  fullest 
development.  Washington,  especially,  is  a  contrast  in 
this  particular  to  its  neighbour,  British  Columbia,  and  is 
increasing  rapidly  in  wealth  and  population.  It  possesses 
a  valuable  asset  in  the  harbour  of  Puget  Sound,  perhaps 
the  most  beautiful  sheet  of  salt  water  in  the  world.  So 
sheer  is  the  coast  of  this  almost  inland  sea  that  in  some 
places  vessels  can  tie  up  to  trees  on  the  banks.  Seattle, 
the  chief  port,  is  a  serious  rival  to  Vancouver.  Both 
here  and  at  Tacomah  are  busy  ship-building  yards,  and 
with  the  increase  of  that  industry  here  and  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  United  States  will  probably  become  a  formi- 
dable rival  to  Britain  and  Japan  in  the  construction  of 
vessels  for  the  purposes  of  warfare  as  well  as  commerce. 

Intimate  connection  by  rail  and  steamer  with  the 
outer  world  is,  of  course,  the  first  necessity  for  prosper- 
ity, and  it  is  obvious  that  San  Francisco  is  pre-eminently 
convenient  for  both  of  these,  and  will  probably  become 
one  of  the  greatest  cities  of  the  world.  The  recent 
increase  of  shipping  both  in  size  and  number  is  notice- 
able, and  San  Francisco  is  now  connected  by  direct 
lines  and  frequent  sailings  with  Sydney,  Yokohama, 
Hong  Kong,  Hamburg  (via  Central  and  South  America), 
and  through  Honolulu  with  all  the  various  island  groups 
of  the  Pacific.  Soon,  no  doubt,  a  line  will  run  direct 
to  Manila,  to  avoid  the  present  trans-shipment  at  Hong 
Kong,  while  the  cable  connects  it  with  Honolulu  and  is 
to  be  extended  to  Manila  and  thence  to  Asia. 

Such,  in  brief  outline,  are  the  resources  and  prospects 
of  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  United  States.  Of  its  physi- 
cal features  little  has  been  said,  because  every  one  knows 


36  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

that  California  is  a  show  place  for  scenery  —  the  Yo- 
semite  Valley  coming  only  next  in  reputation  to  the 
Niagara  Falls,  while  the  snowy  cones  of  Mount  Shasta 
and  the  valleys  of  the  coast  ranges  have  both  their 
charm.  Washington,  with  its  moist  climate  and  forests 
of  Oregon  pine  and  fir,  is  reminiscent  of  Scotland  in 
more  ways  than  one,  and  of  the  beauties  of  Puget  Sound 
something  has  already  been  said.  We  are  practically 
concerned  only  with  the  actual  coast  lands  of  the  Pacific, 
so  must  not  cross  the  great  divide,  but  following  the 
coast  line  southwards  must  pause  for  a  moment  at 
the  point  where  for  so  many  centuries  the  skill  of 
man  has  been  bafHed  in  cutting  a  channel  from  ocean 
to  ocean. 

It  is  only  in  comparatively  modern  times  that  geogra- 
phers of  the  western  hemisphere  brought  themselves 
to  believe  that  no  such  channel  naturally  existed.  Many 
explorers  were  sent  to  look  for  it,  and  several  found  and 
described  it  circumstantially,  receiving,  it  is  to  be  pre- 
sumed, a  handsome  reward  with  which,  if  wise,  they 
straightway  disappeared.  There  have  been  naturally 
many  schemes  for  cutting  a  waterway  from  east  to  west, 
and  these,  of  course,  centre  in  the  isthmus  of  Panama, 
which  at  its  narrowest  point  measures  only  some  thir-ty- 
five  miles  from  ocean  to  ocean.  By  a  process  of  elimi- 
nation three  schemes  at  last  wrere  left  —  the  rival 
canal-routes  of  Panama  and  Nicaragua,  and  the  Tehuan- 
tepec  ship  railway.  Of  the  last,  it  need  only  be  said  that 
although  it  was  deemed  practicable  by  many  experts  it 
has  never  been  carried  through,  and  is  now  almost 
forgotten.  The  rival  merits  of  the  two  canals  are  still 
occupying  the  attention  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, and  opinion  wavers  from  one  to  the  other.  The 


THE   EXPANSION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  37 

difficulties  to  be  encountered  are  threefold  —  physical, 
financial,  and  political  —  chiefly  the  latter,  for  the  appar- 
ently easy  matter  of  cutting  a  canal  at  either  Panama  or 
Nicaragua  is  complicated  less  by  engineering  difficulties 
than  by  the  number  of  vested  interests  in  the  United 
States  which  have  to  be  considered.  The  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty,  which  has  so  long  stood  in  the  way,  is 
abrogated  under  the  new  treaty,  according  to  which 
the  canal  is  to  be  neutral  and  under  the  sole  guarantee 
of  the  United  States.  Some  years  ago  the  writer  made 
a  study  on  the  spot  of  the  conditions  of  the  two  routes, 
and  published  his  conclusions  in  a  book  called  "  The 
Key  of  the  Pacific."  Briefly,  they  were  in  favour  of  the 
Nicaragua  route,  both  because  the  engineering  difficulties, 
though  great,  were  of  a  kind  to  be  overcome  once  for 
all  and  not  subject  to  recurrence  through  floods  or  heavy 
rains,  and  also  on  account  of  the  political  conditions  of 
the  State  through  which  the  canal  would  pass.  These 
conclusions  have  since  been  repeated  by  a  commission 
which  reported  in  1900,  and  it  is  added  that,  although 
the  Nicaragua  route  will  be  longer  and  more  expensive 
than  the  Panama,  it  will  have  compensating  advantages. 
There  is,  however,  something  to  be  said  for  the  latter 
scheme,  but  the  French  company  who  hold  the  con- 
cession do  not  seem  inclined  to  part  with  their  rights 
except  at  a  prohibitive  figure. 

To  leave  this  vexed  question,  and  to  come  to  the  main 
point:  A  trans-isthmian  canal  is  one  of  the  pressing 
necessities  of  the  age,  but  it  is  primarily  an  American 
affair,  and  therefore  need  not  be  regarded  with  jealousy 
by  the  old  world.  As  was  pointed  out,  — 

The  canal  will  complete  a  perfect  equatorial  belt  of  navigation  round 
the  world,  through  the  gateways  of  Suez  and  Nicaragua  (or  Panama). 


38  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

No  greater  impulse  to  commerce  can  be  given  than  this  complement  to 
the  Suez  Canal. 

It  will  benefit  America  in  an  infinitely  greater  degree  than  Europe, 
which  will  only  use  the  canal  in  trading  with  the  Pacific  littoral  of  the 
two  Americas,  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  possibly  New  Zealand.  It  will 
bring  Japan,  Northern  China,  Australasia,  and  part  of  Malaysia  nearer  to 
the  Atlantic  cities  of  the  United  States  than  they  are  now  to  England. 
It  will  divert  little  or  no  traffic  from  the  Suez  Canal.  It  will  give  an 
immense  impetus  to  United  States  manufactures,  especially  cotton  and 
iron,  and  will  greatly  stimulate  the  ship-building  industry  and  the  devel- 
opment of  the  naval  power  of  the  United  States. 

Against  these  arguments  we  have  the  opinions  of  a 
large  body  of  people  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  majority  of  these  are  biassed  by  their  connection 
with  one  or  other  of  the  trans-Continental  railways, 
whose  interests  they  think  would  suffer  by  opening  a 
sea  route  from  ocean  to  ocean.  To  again  quote  the 
same  work : 

These  lines  have  been  the  main  instruments  in  the  marvellous  devel- 
opment of  the  Pacific  slope ;  they  have  also,  however,  extracted  un- 
reasonable rewards  from  the  producers  of  the  Pacific  slope,  indirectly 
rack-renting  that  territory  as  few  estates  in  Ireland  have  been  rack- 
rented,  and  have  throughout  shown  the  keenest  jealousy  of  any  schemes 
likely  to  interfere  with  their  monopolies.  Their  fears  are  in  reality  futile, 
for  the  canal  would  not  only  bring  about  cheap  freight  rates,  of  immense 
service  to  the  community  at  large,  but  would  also  conduce  to  increased 
business  and  larger  incomes  for  the  railway  lines  themselves.  It  would, 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  help  greatly  to  create  on  the  whole  Pacific  slope, 
as  far  east  as  the  Rockies,  a  field  of  business,  a  new  market,  yielding  profits 
transcending  all  those  now  derived  from  trans-Continental  carriage." 

One  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  to  the  Western  States 
of  America  —  a  drawback  which  has  fatal  effects  in 
crushing  individual  effort,  is  the  expense  and  difficulty 
with  which  produce  is  conveyed  to  the  great  markets 
of  the  world.  The  railway  trusts  have  the  whole 
carrying  business  in  their  hands,  and  the  effect  has  been 
to  check  the  desirable  immigration  and  settlement  of  a 


THE   EXPANSION    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  39 

working  agricultural  class,  and  to  limit  the  operations 
of  the  farmer,  who  is  only  able  to  make  a  bare  living 
out  of  the  land.  Such  conditions  are  the  inevitable 
result  of  imperfect  communications  in  the  hands  of  a 
monopoly,  and  the  first  step  towards  remedying  the  evil 
will  be  the  opening  of  a  trans-isthmian  canal.  As  for 
the  international  aspect  of  that  step,  the  writer  has 
always  held  that  the  improvement  of  communications 
all  over  the  world  can  only  be  beneficial  to  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  human  race.  The  same  unreasonable 
timidity  and  selfish  obstruction  which  has  stood  in  the 
way  of  this  canal  has  blocked  the  path  of  every  new 
measure,  and  there  were  plenty  of  people  to  predict 
complete  failure  and  then  evil  consequences  to  Europe 
from  the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The  more  canals 
and  railways  there  are,  the  more  will  merchandise  be 
moved,  and  the  more  will  people  travel.  We  in  Britain 
all  know  that  our  grandfathers  seldom  ventured  beyond 
certain  not  too  distant  towns  in  their  own  little  island, 
or  if  they  ever  visited  the  Continent  were  contented 
once  in  a  lifetime  to  do  the  "grand  tour."  How 
could  they  foresee  the  restlessness  of  the  present  age 
when  networks  of  rails  have  spread  over  Europe  and 
extended  into  Asia,  and  busy  trains  are  all  day  long  full 
of  travellers  hastening  from  one  place  to  another?  They 
would  have  predicted  early  bankruptcy  for  those  who 
multiplied  such  unnecessary  means  of  locomotion  — and 
yet  we  see  that  railway  companies  flourish  and  increase 
exceedingly.  It  is  the  same  with  ocean  communica- 
tion. We  are  as  yet  far  off  the  time  when  supply  will 
exceed  demand,  and  if  the  long-dormant  wealth  of  the 
Orient  is  to  be  exploited,  every  facility  for  bridging  the 
distance  from  West  to  East  must  be  utilised. 


4o 


THE    MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 


We  have  spoken  of  America's  stepping-stones  from 
West  to  East,  and  the  first  of  these  is  Honolulu,  in  the 
beautiful  islands  of  Hawaii.  These  islands  were  origi- 
nally the  home  of  one  of  the  finest  offshoots  of  that  pre- 
historic Caucasian  race  called  the  Polynesian.  The 
Kanakas,  as  they  are  called,  are  some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting of  Pacific  peo- 
ples, and  the  steady 
and  rapid  diminution 
of  their  numbers  is 
greatly  to  be  regretted. 
Since  Honolulu  first 
became  a  half-way 
house  for  vessels  ply- 
ing between  East  and 
West  great  changes 
have  taken  place. 
From  the  first  the 
Hawaiians  adopted 
eagerly  the  religion 
and  customs  brought 
by  early  missionaries 
and  traders,  and  the 
influence  gained  by 
the  former  was  ex- 
traordinary. These  handsome,  laughter-loving  children 
of  Nature  suffered,  however,  in  the  too  wholesale  civilisa- 
tion to  which  they  were  subjected,  and  their  attempts 
to  organise  a  civilised  government  met  with  complete 
failure.  After  many  political  squabbles  among  the  na- 
tive rulers  and  the  various  leaders  of  mixed  nationality 
who  obtained  a  following,  the  United  States  annexed 
the  islands,  which  now  form  a  "  territory."  The  rights 


HAWAIIAN    MAN 


THE   EXPANSION    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


of  American  citizens  are  extended  to  all  whites,  includ- 
ing Portuguese  (of  whom  there  are  a  number),  all  persons 
of  African  descent,  and  all  descendants  of  the  Hawaiian 
race,  either  on  the  maternal  or  paternal  side,  who  were 
citizens  of  Hawaii  immediately  prior  to  the  transfer  of 
the  sovereignty  to  the  United  States. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  (of  whom  there  are  actually  over 
forty  thousand  in  the  islands)  are  therefore  restricted  as 
far  as  possible,  but  nevertheless  they  form  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the 
population.  The 
former  are  the 
market  gardeners 
of  the  island,  and 
they  and  the  Japan- 
ese are  practically 
the  only  domestic 
servants,  and  are 
also  largely  em- 
ployed on  the  plan- 
tations. Both  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese 
immigration  is  like- 
ly to  be  still  more 
strictly  restricted, 
and  the  attitude  of 
Hawaiian  officials 
in  this  matter,  and  the  evident  intention  in  all  American 
ports  to  discriminate  between  the  white  man  and  the 
yellow  —  even  when  the  latter  is  a  highly  civilised  Jap- 
anese—  are  arousing  much  bitter  feeling  in  Japan,  and 
does  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Chinese. 

The   constant   stream  of    European    visitors   passing 


HAWAIIAN   GIRL 


42  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

through  Honolulu  has  made  that  town  as  western  and 
modern  as  half  a  dozen  others  in  the  United  States,  but 
the  scenery,  with  its  blue  background  of  volcanoes, 
its  rich  vegetation  and  brilliant  flowers,  is  a  never- 
failing  delight,  and  the  climate  is  singularly  delightful 
and  healthy.  The  traveller,  tired  of  the  monotonous  sea 
journey,  is  too  pleased  to  mind  should  an  insidious 
voice  whisper  that  the  native  dance,  performed  for  his 
benefit,  is  now  as  little  native  as  the  performance  of 
nautch  girls  at  Calcutta  or  of  geishas  at  Nagasaki,  being 
merely  arranged  for  the  benefit  of  the  globe-trotter ;  and 
he  cares  not  a  jot  that  the  flowers,  and  even  the  trees, 
which  delight  his  eyes  are  all  imported.  When  he 
comes  to  pay  the  bill  for  his  day's  amusement,  however, 
•he  will  probably  be  less  enthusiastic,  for  nothing  is  more 
American  than  the  prices  in  Honolulu. 

The  principal  industry  in  these  favoured  islands  is  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  and  rice.  The  former  absorbs  a 
great  proportion  of  the  trade,  and  is  exported  to  the 
United  States.  Vegetables  and  fruit  (with  the  exception 
of  bananas)  are  curiously  scarce,  and  tinned  fruit  from 
California  is  largely  imported  into  Hawaii,  as  well  as 
other  Pacific  islands  —  a  curious  state  of  affairs  when 
we  consider  the  climatic  conditions.  The  labour  diffi- 
culty is  one  of  the  chief  drawbacks  to  the  prosperity 
of  Hawaii,  for  the  Kanakas,  who  are,  moreover,  a  de- 
creasing race,  cannot  be  induced  to  do  coolie  work  in 
large  numbers.  They  are  of  independent  and  somewhat 
indolent  character,  and  prefer  individual  effort,  unless 
they  work  under  some  of  their  own  countrymen  of  rank. 
Attention  is  also  needed  in  the  forestry  department,  for 
the  wholesale  destruction  of  woods,  especially  on  the 
island  of  Hawaii,  has  not  only  caused  droughts,  but 


THE   EXPANSION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  43 

has  reduced   a   large  area  to  the  condition   of   barren 
desert. 

The  long  journey  between  San  Francisco  or  other 
American  ports,  and  Sydney  or  New  Zealand,  can  be 
broken  again  in  the  Samoa  Islands.  This  group  is  of 
great  strategic  importance,  and  in  Pango-pango,  on  the 
island  of  Tutuila,  the  United  States  have  secured  a  mag- 
nificent naval  station,  according  to  competent  authorities 
the  finest  and  safest  harbour  in  the  Pacific.  It  was  only 
actively  occupied  in  1898,  though  the  harbour  was  ceded 
to  the  States  as  early  as  1872.  It  is  only  the  two  small 
islands  of  Tutuila  and  Manua  that  belong  to  the  United 
States,  the  two  larger  ones  of  Savaii  and  Upolu  being 
German.  This  division  dates  from  1899,  when  a  treaty 
was  concluded  between  the  three  Powers,  Britain, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States  who  had  hitherto 
guaranteed  the  independence  of  Samoa.  Apia,  the 
capital  of  the  islands,  is  quite  a  European  town,  and 
the  civilisation  and  Christianising  of  the  natives  is  prac- 
tically accomplished.  At  the  same  time  there  are  no 
islands  where  native  life  and  customs  have  been  so  little 
disturbed,  for  the  paramount  missionary  influence  was 
exerted  so  that  the  native  should  be  Christianised  but  not 
Anglicised,  and  neither  Germans  nor  Americans  have 
done  much  to  interfere  with  national  life.  Even  to-day 
an  intelligent  and  sympathetic  visitor  could  (say  in  the 
west  of  Savaii)  see  the  Samoan  as  he  was  a  hundred 
years  ago,  and  of  his  charms  and  virtues,  as  well  as  his 
weaknesses,  all  lovers  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  have 
read  and  re-read,  until  the  free,  happy,  gentle,  flower- 
loving  people  seem  familiar  to  him.  The  introduction 
of  civilisation  and  commerce,  however,  had  the  usual 
effect  on  the  Samoans;  they  assimilated  quickly,  but 


44 


THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 


were  not  able  to  cope  with  the  more  complicated  state 
of  affairs.  The  Tutuilans,  in  particular,  long  split  into 
factions  and  without  any  organised  rule,  were  torn  by 
political  dissensions.  The  intrigues  of  foreign  adven- 
turers added  another  discordant  element,  and  it  would 
be  difficult  to  conceive  a  people  more  in  need  of  a 
government  than  the  Tutuilans  when  the  United  States 
flag  was  raised.  Manua  was  in  a  better  condition,  hav- 


PANGOPANGO    HARBOUR,    SAMOA 


ing  worked  out  a  scheme  of  its  ,own  for  local  and  inde- 
pendent government,  and  under  the  new  regime  the 
natives  of  both  islands  are  hopeful  and  content  —  a  fact 
which  says  much  for  the  naval  officers  who  have  accom- 
plished the  task  of  restoring  law  and  order.  The  exten- 
sive expenditure  in  building  wharves,  coal-sheds,  and 
Government  offices  at  Pango-pango  has  given  lucrative 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  natives,  and  there 
seems  every  prospect  that  this  most  beautiful  and  fertile 


THE   EXPANSION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


45 


of  all  the  Pacific  groups  will  now  prosper.  The  chief 
article  of  export  is  copra,  the  dried  kernel  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  from  which  cocoa-nut  oil  is  manufactured,  but  the 
importance  of  the  islands  really  lies  in  their  position  as 
providing  a  first-class  coaling  and  repairing  station  on  the 
direct  line  of  the  great  highway  of  commerce  between 
San  Francisco  and  Australia,  and  slightly  south  of  the 
steamship  line  which  will  connect  the  Philippines  with 
the  proposed  trans-isthmian  canal. 

The  possibilities  of  trade  expansion  for  the  United 
States  under  the  new  conditions  now  in  process  of  rapid 
evolution  are  much  discussed,  but  the  fundamental  fea- 
tures are  apt  to  be  obscured  in  a  mass  of  details  and 
figures,  for  which  there  are  no  sufficient  data.  The  em- 
ployment of  statistics  in  such  a  case  is  altogether  mis- 
leading, and  the  solution,  if  any,  is  to  be  sought  rather  by 
the  exercise  of  a  certain  amount  of  imagination  guided 
by  the  light  of  past  experience. 

In  the  Asiatic- Pacific  area,  that  is,  countries  border- 
ing the  Pacific  or  the  islands,  with  which  the  United 
States  are  now  brought  into  immediate  contact,  there 
are  close  on  five  hundred  millions  of  people  —  six 
times  the  population  of  the  United  States  and  one-third 
that  of  the  whole  human  race.1  Of  this  enormous  popu- 

1  Chinese  Empire about  320  millions 

Manchuria  and  East  Siberia 10  " 

Japan  (including  Formosa) 43  " 

Dutch  East  Indies 35  " 

British  Borneo 2  " 

Indo-China 22  " 

Straits  Settlements  and  Malay  Peninsula  .     .  2  " 

Korea 10  " 

Siam .     .  5  " 

Philippines 8  " 

Australasia  and  the  Pacific  Islands  ....  5  " 


46  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 

lation,  four  hundred  million  belong  to  two  Oriental 
nations,  China  and  Japan ;  the  former  broken  down, 
discredited,  derelict,  passing  under  the  sway  of  various 
European  Powers ;  the  latter  a  highly  organised  and 
civilised  country  in  the  van  of  progress. 

From  many  points  of  view  the  contrast  between  Japan 
and  China  is  great,  and  not  least  in  the  conditions  of 
their  foreign  trade. 

The  commercial  and  industrial  development  of  Japan 
has  been  extraordinary  since  she  entered  on  the  path  of 
progress,  and  especially  since  she  began  to  utilise  so 
thoroughly  all  the  best  elements  of  Western  civilisation. 
Inter  alia  the  trade  of  the  United  States  in  imports  and 
exports  with  Japan  has  increased  annually  by  leaps  and 
bounds  during  the  past  ten  years.  The  general  foreign 
trade  of  Japan,  with  about  one-eighth  the  population  of 
China,  is  actually  eight  times  as  great,  a  fact  eloquent  as 
to  the  possibilities  of  trade  expansion  in  China  under 
the  new  conditions.  In  Japan  the  development  has  been 
accomplished  by  the  Japanese  themselves,  almost  with- 
out direct  foreign  aid,  for  there  was  at  the  first  only  the 
merest  handful  of  Europeans  to  teach  them.  Their 
assimilation  was  accomplished  by  means  of  one  of  the 
greatest  Intelligence  agencies  ever  set  in  motion  spread 
all  over  the  world,  utilising  the  knowledge  of  the  West, 
and  not  ignoring  that  of  the  East.  This  great  develop- 
ment, far  from  diminishing,  is  likely  to  increase  more 
rapidly  still  should  Japan  decide  to  employ  foreign  capi- 
tal in  developing  her  resources.  But  the  prospect  of 
increasing  trade  depends  largely  on  the  political  rela- 
tions, for  Japan  is  not  likely  to  submit  tamely  to  the 
treatment  accorded  her  by  the  exclusion  policy  of  the 
United  States,  no  more  than  she  is  likely  to  endure  it 


47 

from  the  offspring  of  Britain  in  the  Pacific  —  Austra- 
lasia and  British  Columbia. 

The  question  of  trade  with  China  is  a  much  debated 
one,  but  the  answer  chiefly  depends  on  certain  fun- 
damental features,  mainly  whether  China  is  a  rich  or 
a  poor  country,  whether  she  is  overpopulated  or  not, 
whether  she  will  remain  an  independent  Power  or  fall 
under  European  control.  There  are  those  who,  arguing 
from  the  stand-still  condition  of  China's  trade,  maintain 
that  China  is  a  poor  country  and  that  she  is  overpopu- 
lated. To  both  these  views  the  writer  has  always  taken 
exception.  The  general  consensus  of  opinion,  however, 
is  that  China  is  a  land  of  vast  possibilities  in  her  soil,  but 
the  potentialities  in  her  people  are  usually  overlooked. 
The  country  as  a  whole  is  not  overpopulated,  though 
certain  districts  are,  and  the  vast  regions  and  mineral 
resources  awaiting  development,  if  only  properly  utilised, 
would  employ  the  present  redundant  Chinese  population 
for  a  long  time  to  come. 

The  prospect  of  China's  integrity  being  maintained  — 
the  wish  being  father  to  the  thought  —  is  a  very  slen- 
der one,  for  a  great  portion  of  that  country  is  already 
parcelled  out  into  so  many  spheres ;  spheres  that 
are  being  consolidated  slowly  but  surely,  and  always 
with  feelers  cast  out,  as  in  the  case  of  Germany  and 
the  Yangtsze  Valley,  or  pre-emption  to  provinces,  as  in 
the  case  of  Japan.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
useless  to  discuss  the  possibilities  of  China  as  it  was  a 
few  years  ago.  We  have  to  consider  a  China  controlled 
in  certain  regions  by  various  Powers,  the  still  indepen- 
dent section  of  the  country  gradually  diminishing  in 
extent.  Under  these  circumstances  the  Powers  that 
have  merely  commercial  ambitions,  such  as  the  United 


48  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

States  and  Britain,  have  to  face  the  problem  of  a  Rus- 
sian China,  a  German  China,  a  French  China,  all  under 
protectionist  tariffs  which  must  effectually  put  an  end  to 
any  hope  of  the  open  door. 

The  vast  resources  of  China,  which  her  rulers  have 
proved  themselves  hopelessly  unfitted  to  utilise,  are  now 
to  be  developed  by  various  Powers  who  will  bring  to 
bear  on  the  task  all  the  powers  of  organisation  and  capi- 
tal which  are  commanded  by  the  West.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  —  tea,  silk,  raw  cotton,  wool,  hides,  mats,  and 
straw-braid  —  will  doubtless  be  immensely  increased 
by  the  opening  of  the  country,  and  the  development 
of  the  great  mineral  resources  will  bring  a  fresh  factor 
into  the  existing  fields  of  supply.  In  the  major  part  of 
the  chief  imports  —  cotton  goods,  opium,  rice,  metal 
manufactures,  and  mineral  oil  —  there  seems  little  open- 
ing for  the  United  States.  Opium  and  rice  she  cannot 
supply;  in  cotton  goods  she  cannot  hope  to  supplant 
Britain  and  India ;  only  in  manufactures  and  oil  is  she 
likely  to  immediately  increase  rapidly.  But  under  exist- 
ing circumstances  it  is  impossible  to  indicate  the  course 
of  events,  the  exact  extent  of  developments  imminent  or 
what  direction  they  may  take.  Were  China  on  the  eve 
of  a  new  departure  on  her  own  initiative,  or  under  the 
guidance  of  Japan,  it  might  be  possible  to  foreshadow 
the  future,  which  would  be  a  repetition  on  a  greater 
or  lesser  scale  of  the  rise  of  Japan;  but  cut  up  by  foreign 
Powers  with  diverging  policies,  and  subject  to  outside 
influences,  it  is  only  possible  to  foresee  the  development 
of  vast  regions  at  the  hands  of  Western  Powers,  with 
the  application  of  all  their  gifts  of  organisation  and  each 
sphere  a  closed  borough  so  far  as  possible.  That  the 
result  will  be  an  increase  to  American  trade  cannot  be 


THE    EXPANSION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  49 

doubted,  but  those  who  dwell  on  this  forget  that  the 
blessing,  such  as  it  may  be,  will  not  be  an  unmixed  one, 
for  responsibilities  will  accompany  this  extension.  A 
progressive  European  China  may  produce  more  business 
than  a  stand-still  Chinese  China,  but  it  will  be  more 
troublesome.  Whether  the  process  can  be  carried  out 
without  serious  disorders,  without  perhaps  a  conflagra- 
tion such  as  the  world  has  not  yet  known,  remains  to  be 
seen.  In  any  case,  whatever  the  degree  of  development 
may  be,  slow  or  fast,  shut  spheres  or  partially  open,  it 
is  clear  that  the  United  States,  with  her  unrivalled 
resources,  energy,  and  adaptability,  will  secure  her  share. 
Even  if  the  railway  and  mining  and  other  enterprises  be 
kept  in  the  hands  of  the  Powers  concerned,  she  must 
secure  an  important  share ;  but  the  degree  will  depend 
largely  on  international  relations,  just  as  in  the  case 
of  Japan.  Her  chief  advantage  will  be  an  indirect  one 
due  to  the  stimulus  given  to  trade  generally. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  United  States  had  substantial 
pieds-a-terre  in  the  Pacific  before  the  war  with  Spain 
and  its  attendant  train  of  circumstances  rushed  her  into 
the  annexation  of  the  Philippines.  That  step  was  one 
of  such  far-reaching  consequences  that  the  whole  ques- 
tion must  be  treated  at  far  greater  length,  but  it  is  per- 
haps useful  to  state  briefly  the  categories  under  which 
hitherto  the  United  States  has  classed  her  dependencies, 
since  much  hangs  on  this  vexed  question  of  status. 

The  United  States  consists,  as  every  schoolboy  knows, 
of  a  federation  of  States  under  a  President  and  Congress, 
elected  by  a  manhood  suffrage.  The  constitution  was 
especially  framed  to  ensure  the  rights  of  American  citi- 
zenship to  every  one  born  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 
This  was  simple  at  first,  though  it  involved  later  on  the 


50  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

admission  to  the  franchise  of  a  very  large  coloured  vote, 
but  when  over-sea  expansion  began  the  question -was  at 
once  complicated.  The  problem,  briefly  put,  is  how  to 
govern  dependencies,  which,  under  the  United  States 
Constitution,  should  be  as  autonomous  as  the  different 
States  of  the  Federation.  It  was  obviously  impossible  to 
create  new  States  at  once  out  of  the  countries  annexed, 
whose  peoples  have  not  been  educated  or  trained  up  to 
the  standard  of  American  citizenship.  These  have 
therefore  been  constituted  as  "  territories,"  some  still 
remaining  in  that  status,  while  others  have  gradually 
become  full-fledged  States.  The  difference,  broadly 
speaking,  between  States  and  territories  is  that  the  lat- 
ter do  not  elect  their  own  governors,  secretaries,  or 
judges,  who  are  appointed  by  the  President,  and  that 
although  autonomous,  any  of  their  measures  may  be 
altered  or  vetoed  by  the  Federal  Government.  Hawaii 
is  such  a  "territory."  Cuba,  on  the  contrary,  clamours  for 
the  full  rights  of  a  State,  if  not  complete  independence. 
To  show  the  elasticity  of  the  United  States  Constitu- 
tion, or  perhaps  the  liberality  with  which  it  is  inter- 
preted, we  must  add  that  Alaska  is  practically  the 
same  as  a  British  Crown  Colony,  being  even  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor  without  the  aid  of  any  legislature. 
Constitutional  difficulties,  which  hitherto  have  been  set- 
tled by  a  little  adjustment,  have,  however,  assumed  a 
more  serious  aspect  during  the  recent  developments.  It 
is  one  thing  to  admit  scattered  communities  of  white, 
or  nearly  white,  men  into  the  rights  of  citizenship,  keep- 
ing them  for  a  time  in  leading-strings  but  always 
with  the  view  of  giving  them  an  equal  share  in  politi- 
cal responsibilities,  but  quite  a  different  matter  to  act 
in  the  same  way  with  a  closely  packed  and  numer- 


THE   EXPANSION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  51 

ous  brown  people  of  Oriental  origin  and  peculiar  civili- 
sation. The  question  presents  difficulties  in  Cuba,  where 
a  far  higher  standard  of  political  and  social  evolution  has 
been  reached,  and  even  in  Porto  Rico,  which  is  so  near 
the  United  States  mainland  as  to  be  easily  influenced 
and  controlled.  The  former  will  probably  be  created  an 
independent  State  later  on,  while  the  latter,  now  under 
military  rule,  is  to  have  representative  Government  with 
a  restricted  franchise,  and  later  will  be  a  territory ;  but 
neither  system  seems  suitable  for  the  remote  and  popu- 
lous Philippines  with  their  peculiar  conditions.  The 
United  States  are  just  undertaking  a  problem  which 
Great  Britain  threshed  out  some  time  ago  —  how  to  gov- 
ern dependencies.  The  dearly  bought  experience  of  the 
latter  has  convinced  her  of  one  thing :  that  no  hard  and 
fast  rule  can  be  laid  down,  but  that  racial,  climatic,  and 
other  conditions  must  play  their  part.  In  countries  un-  \ 
suitable  for  white  labour  the  European  must  direct  and 
control  —  in  other  words  government  must  be  official  — 
while  in  temperate  climes  every  inducement  must  be 
given  to  white  settlers  and  self-government  granted  at 
the  first  possible  moment.  No  such  problem,  however, 
has  ever  presented  itself  to  Great  Britain  or  any  other 
colonising  Power  as  that  which  confronts  the  United 
States  in  the  Philippines ;  for  there  conditions  are  com- 
plicated by  the  presence  of  a  mixed  race  who  can 
neither  be  treated  as  "  natives  "  nor  as  Americans.  The 
evil  traditions  of  some  three  centuries  of  corrupt  govern- 
ment hang  over  the  islands,  and  the  task  is  rendered 
twofold  harder  by  the  necessity  for  pulling  down  the 
edifice  before  building  it  up  again.  What  the  condi- 
tions are  and  how  the  United  States  are  dealing  with 
them  will  be  told  later,  but  it  may  be  said  here  that  with 


52  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

characteristic  self-confidence  the  Americans  are  practically 
setting  on  one  side  the  accumulated  experience  of  other 
colonising  nations,  and  are  determined  to  meet  the  new 
problems  by  a  great  and  entirely  novel  experiment. 

It  is  natural  in  a  great  Republic  like  the  United  States 
that  the  voice  of  the  people  should  make  itself  loudly 
heard  in  all  questions  of  national  import,  and  as  the 
organ  by  which  that  voice  speaks  one  turns  to  the  Press 
for  light  on  this  subject.  Whatever  may  be  the  merits  or 
demerits  of  the  American  Press  as  a  news  disseminator, 
it  must  be  acknowledged  that  from  many  other  points 
of  view  it  falls  short  of  excellence,  and  with  certain 
notable  exceptions  there  is  little  in  the  average  daily 
papers  to  elucidate  political  problems  or  to  help  the 
formation  of  true  national  sentiment.  Sensation  seems 
the  chief  aim  and  end,  and  neither  deep  thinking  nor 
scholarly  writing  are  of  as  much  importance  as  artful 
alliteration  or  novel  head-lines.  It  is  perhaps  partly  on 
account  of  the  extreme  frothiness  of  the  daily  Press  that 
serious,  not  to  say  stodgy,  reviews  find  a  warm  welcome 
in  the  States,  but  whether  it  be  in  the  heavily  leaded 
columns  of  a  "  daily  "  or  the  sedate  pages  of  a  review, 
no  one  can  wade,  as  the  writer  has  done,  through  masses 
of  literature  about  the  new  developments  in  the  Far 
East  and  the  part  the  United  States  has  to  play,  without 
being  struck  by  the  very  little  real  knowledge  brought 
to  bear  on  the  subject.  Men  who  have  never  been  to 
the  East  and  have  merely  studied  their  subject  from  the 
best  authorities  do  not  blunder  quite  so  badly,  but  the 
peripatetic  Senator,  the  half-educated  newspaper  reporter, 
the  rich  globe-trotter,  or  the  special  commissioner  who 
has  made  a  hurried  rush  from  one  point  to  another  and 
collected  "  local  colour  "  —  all  these  illustrate  most  woe- 


THE    EXPANSION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  53 

fully  the  proverb  that  a  little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous 
thing. 

•  The  fact  is  that  the  United  States,  on  the  eve  of  a 
new  era  in  their  development  and  face  to  face  with  new 
conditions,  must  now  work  out  their  own  salvation  and 
acquire  knowledge  for  themselves.  Years  of  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  East  will  teach  them  more  than 
sheaves  of  review  articles  or  tons  of  Governmental  reports. 
Until  that  knowledge  is  painfully  acquired  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  dependencies  of  the  United  States  will  be  gov- 
erned and  organised  by  the  one  or  two  men  on  the  spot 
who  know  something  and  try  to  remedy  their  ignorance, 
and  not  by  the  masses  of  people  at  home  who  are  anxious 
to  ventilate  their  wisdom.  Government  by  majorities 
is,  of  course,  the  natural  state  of  affairs  in  a  Republic, 
though  in  the  United  States  it  is  being  rapidly  replaced 
by  a  different  system  —  the  Trust,  or  combination  of  a 
powerful  few.  Either  method  is  likely  to  have  fatal  re- 
sults if  allowed  full  play  in  dealing  with  dependencies, 
especially  such  distant  and  difficult  ones  as  the  Philippines. 
The  fickleness  of  popular  opinion  —  swayed  by  a  phrase, 
carried  away  by  a  catch-word  —  is  counteracted  in  home 
affairs  by  a  certain  common  sense  which  helps  every 
man  to  decide  on  questions  with  whose  practical  bear- 
ings he  is  acquainted ;  but  when  the  question  raised  is 
altogether  outside  his  practical  knowledge,  he  is  apt  to 
be  swept  away  even  more  strongly  by  the  tide  of  popular 
emotion.  It  would  be  easy  to  write  a  very  informing 
paragraph  on  how  not  to  govern  dependencies,  but  it 
will  perhaps  be  better  to  leave  that  to  the  imagination 
of  the  reader,  which  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  largely  stimu- 
lated by  a  perusal  in  these  pages  of  the  methods  already 
employed  by  various  Powers  in  the  East. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    PHILIPPINES    AND    THE    FILIPINOS 

THE  archipelago  known  as  the  Philippines  is  com- 
posed of  a  great  number  of  islands ;  the  exact  number, 
variously  given  at  from  six  to  fourteen  hundred,  cannot 
be  estimated,  but  by  no  means  all  of  these  are  inhabited. 
In  this  broken  group  about  a  dozen  islands  are  of  con- 
siderable size.  Luzon  is  the  largest,  and  Mindanao,  the 
next  in  size,  is  considerably  larger  than  Ireland.  When 
Magellan  first  landed  at  Cebu  he  began  at  once  to 
Christianise  the  natives,  by  forcible  means  if  no  other 
would  avail,  and  when,  some  time  later,  Legaspi  landed 
in  Manila  and  began  the  conquest  of  the  islands  for 
Spain,  his  success  was  largely  due  to  the  Augustinian 
friars  who  accompanied  him.  The  "  Church  militant  " 
was  no  figure  of  speech  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  many 
times  in  the  history  of  the  Spanish  Indies  do  we  hear 
of  the  monks  fighting  in  the  van,  even  organising  regi- 
ments and  leading  them  against  the  heathen,  and,  when 
victory  was  secured,  baptizing  the  conquered. 

The  people  found  in  the  islands  by  the  Spaniards  be- 
longed fundamentally  to  the  three  races  already  men- 
tioned, just  as  the  Filipinos  do  to-day.  The  Negritos, 
or  aborigines  (of  whom  there  are  now  about  twenty-five 
thousand,  found  in  Luzon,  Panay,  Negros,  and  Min- 
danao), had  been  driven  to  the  mountains,  where  they 
are  still  found  in  dwindling  numbers.  They  have  cer- 

54 


O    E 

A    N 

T  L  3f 

-^ 

I  -WTESTI 
AUSTRJ 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND   THE   FILIPINOS  55 

tain  resemblances  to  the  African  negroes,  being  woolly 
haired,  with  protruding  lips,  black  skin,  and  the  flat  calves 
and  prominent  abdomens  common  to  people  of  a  low 
grade.  Their  weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow,  and 
knives  bought  from  the  Malays ;  they  have  no  arts  of 
husbandry,  and,  like  the  Australian  aborigines,  live  on 
roots,  herbs,  insects,  and  reptiles,  being  nomadic  in 
their  habits  unless  they  have  come  under  foreign  in- 
fluence. Their  religion  is  of  the  rudest,  and  they 
possess  no  temples  or  fetich  houses.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  establish  their  connection  with  the  Papu- 
ans; but,  although  they  may  have  existed  in  some  of 
the  islands  now  inhabited  by  the  latter,  and  have  inter- 
married, the  two  types  are  very  dissimilar.  The  hawk- 
like nose  of  the  Papuan  is  quite  sufficient  to  distinguish 
him  from  the  Negrito,  without  mentioning  other  points 
both  of  appearance  and  character. 

The  Indonesians  (of  whom  there  are  250,0x30,  chiefly 
in  Mindanao)  are  of  more  importance,  as  they  are  not, 
like  the  Negritos,  dwindling,  but  are  in  many  parts  a 
fine  and  flourishing  people.  In  writing  of  the  ethnology 
of  the  Philippines  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  the  many 
theories  put  forward  at  different  times  as  regards  the 
wonderfully  mixed  tribes  found  in  those  islands.  The 
discovery  of  their  words  in  different  languages  and  their 
peculiar  customs  and  racial  characteristics  elsewhere 
has  led  to  wild  surmisings ;  until,  unable  to  digest 
the  mass  of  writing  on  the  subject,  one  is  apt  to 
arise  with  the  conviction  that  tribes  belonging  to  every 
race  in  the  world  are  to  be  found  there.  The  geographi- 
cal position  of  the  archipelago  must,  however,  be 
taken  into  consideration,  combined  with  what  is  known 
of  the  history  of  other  neighbouring  islands.  The  the- 


5  6  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

ory  of  the  Pre- Malay  wave  provides  for  the  presence 
in  the  Philippines  of  a  people  of  semi-Caucasian  stock, 
and  the  proximity  of  the  islands  to  China  and  Japan 
makes  an  infusion  of  the  two  great  Mongol  races  an 
equal  certainty.  The  Philippine  Indonesians  are  prob- 
ably far  less  pure  in  blood  than  the  Bornean  Dyaks  or 
the  Sumatra  Battaks,  but  no  one  can  fail  to  be  struck 
with  the  strong  resemblance  between  the  three  races. 
The  straight  noses,  wide  eyes,  and  lank  black  hair  are 
frequently  found  in  conjunction  with  almost  fair  skin, 
and  the  likeness  in  customs,  superstitions,  and  methods 
of  living  is  equally  striking.  It  is  more  than  probable 
that  the  Formosan  aborigines  belong  to  the  same  family. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  difficult  to  decide  where 
Indonesian  ends  and  Malayan  begins,  the  more  so  that 
the  Malayans  themselves,  being  of  semi-Mongol  stock, 
melt  almost  imperceptibly  into  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
The  Malay  character  and  physique,  however,  may  be 
taken  as  the  real  foundation  for  the  Filipinos,  and  we 
shall  see  subsequently  how  that  character,  modified  by 
three  centuries  of  Spanish  civilisation,  has  been  further 
affected  by  the  infusion  of  foreign  blood. 

It  may  be  said  roughly  that,  while  the  people  of  Indo- 
nesian stock  resisted  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  the 
Malays  (except  when  Mahommedans)  accepted  them 
with  great  readiness.  Receptivity  is,  indeed,  a  Malay 
characteristic,  and  the  commanding  personalities  of  the 
militant  friars,  added  to  the  ritual  they  practised,  were 
both  fascinating  to  the  easily  led  and  spectacle-loving 
Malay.  The  Spaniards  called  all  the  Filipinos  "  Ind- 
ians," but  the  Pagan  tribes  were  frequently  spoken  of 
as  Igorrotes,  a  name  which,  strictly  speaking,  only  ap- 
plies to  one  race.  Among  the  many  different  Pagan 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  57 

tribes,  living  entirely  isolated  from  and  frequently  at  war 
with  each  other,  space  forbids  description  of  more  than 
one.  The  Tinguianes  dwell  in  the  coast  province  of 
Abra,  Luzon,  and  owing  to  the  proximity  to  China  of 
that  island,  a  considerable  infusion  of  Chinese  blood 
may  be  presupposed.  They  practise  agriculture  and 
breed  horses,  are  monogamists,  and  tattoo  themselves. 
One  tribe  at  all  events,  dwelling  in  the  Benguet  moun- 
tain district,  are  sun-worshippers,  and  have  the  sun 
tattooed  on  the  backs  of  their  hands.  Head-hunting  is 
also  a  custom,  though  not  among  the  more  civilised. 
Some  have  even  become  Christians,  and  dwell  in  peace- 
ful agricultural  communities.  Some  characteristics 
noted  by  the  French  traveller,  Gironiere,  if  correctly 
observed,  tally  exactly  with  those  among  the  Dyaks. 
For  instance,  they  build  high  in  the  trees  and  throw 
down  stones  on  their  enemies ;  they  treasure  porcelain 
vases ;  they  dry  their  dead ;  they  drink  the  brains  of 
their  slain  foes,  mixing  them  with  an  intoxicating  liquor 
—  these  are  a  few  of  the  points  of  coincidence,  and  it 
may  be  supposed  that  they  are  common  to  all  people  of 
pre-Malay  stock.  The  treasuring  of  porcelain  vases, 
however,  is  more  probably  due  in  both  cases  to  Chinese 
influence.  These  old  vases,  used  in  many  cases  for 
dead  bodies,  fetch  fabulous  prices  in  Borneo.  A 
thoughtful  observer,  who  had  often  talked  to  the  natives 
about  them,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  connected 
them  in  some  way  with  the  souls  of  their  ancestors, 
hence  their  fictitious  value. 

This  is.  not  a  scientific  ethnological  study,  and  the 
writer  can  only  give  the  barest  outline  of  the  fascinating 
problems  raised  in  even  a  cursory  glance  at  the  tribes 
of  the  Philippines,  but  before  proceeding  to  an  account 


58  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

of  the  real  Filipino,  of  true  Malay  stock  and  Spanish 
civilisation,  it  is  necessary  to  briefly  sketch  another  race 
found  in  the  southern  part  of  the  archipelago,  and  dis- 
tinct from  either  the  Christian  Malay  or  Pagan  Indone- 
sian. The  Moros,  so-called  by  the  Spaniards  because 
they  professed  Mohammedanism,  and  were,  therefore, 
like  the  "  Moors  "  of  Spain,  came  originally  from  Borneo 
and  the  Celebes,  at  a  period  a  good  deal  later  than  that 
of  the  first  Malay  wave  which  peopled  the  Philippines. 
It  is  thought  that  they  brought  with  them  the  religion 
of  the  Prophet,  which  superseded  the  Hindoo  creed 
hitherto  practised ;  and  they  apparently  belonged  to  the 
division  of  the  Malay  family,  already  described,  who  were 
sea  gipsies  and  pirates.  Settling  in  the  Sulu  (or  Jolo) 
group  and  in  Mindanao,  these  people  became  a  powerful 
race,  and  North  Borneo,  including  Brunei,  was  subject  to 
them.  They  were  the  terror  of  the  seas;  swooping  down 
in  their  long  narrow  prahus  they  sacked  villages,  took 
the  girls  and  young  men  as  slaves,  and  killed  all  the  old 
people.  The  valiant  Friars  waged  war  long  and  unsuc- 
cessfully against  these  people,  and  endeavoured  to  pro- 
tect their  weaker  neighbours  from  attack,  but  until  just 
before  the  time  of  the  American  occupation,  the  Moros 
had  succeeded  in  preserving  their  independence,  although 
their  acts  of  piracy  had  been  checked  and  their  power 
was  dwindling,  owing  to  internal  corruption  and  dissen- 
sions. 

Just  before  Spain  lost  the  Philippines  altogether, 
however,  a  treaty  was  made  by  her  with  the  Moros, 
which  practically  secured  suzerainty  of  their  territory, 
and  a  similar  footing  has  been  established  by  the  United 
States,  which  have  not  yet  decided  exactly  how  to 
treat  this  rather  anomalous  portion  of  their  new  domin- 


THE  PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  59 

ions.  The  friendliness  and  fearlessness  of  their  new 
masters  have  produced  a  favourable  impression  on  the 
Moros,  and  they  are  keen  to  reap  material  benefits  from 
the  measures  introduced  and  the  general  stimulus  to 
trade;  but  they  present  several  difficulties,  which  will 
have  to  be  surmounted  with  tact.  They  may  be  taken 
as  representing  the  quintessence  of  the  Malay  character 
in  its  laziness,  vanity,  personal  bravery,  and  a  certain 
recklessness  and  dash  which  are  not  without  charm. 
Perhaps  of  all  the  Malay  tribes  they  are  most  given  to 
amok,  a  species  of  madness  which  is  not,  however,  with- 
out its  method.  The  man  who  runs  amok  may  be  a 
religious  fanatic,  he  may  simply  be  suffering  from  men- 
tal aberration  —  "  my  head  was  hot  "  is  a  favourite  excuse 
for  loss  of  self-control  —  but  in  most  of  the  cases  which 
have  been  carefully  analysed  personal  spite  or  revenge 
was  found  to  be  at  the  bottom.  The  amoker  is  described 
as  shaving  his  eyebrows,  putting  on  a  peculiar  dress,  and 
taking  a  vow  before  his  mullah,  or  priest,  after  which  he 
rushes  into  the  street  and  with  his  kris  stabs  right  and 
left.  The  preliminaries  are  not  always  so  formal,  and  an 
official  of  North  Borneo,  who  had  spent  thirty  years 
among  the  Malays,  told  us  that  more  than  once  he  had 
seen  men  in  the  incipient  stages  of  amok,  and,  gathering 
from  their  appearance  their  disturbed  mental  condition, 
had  secured  them  and  treated  them  to  a  bucket  of  cold 
water,  which  promptly  restored  them.  The  question  is 
not  one  of  political  importance,  and  the  firm  common 
sense  of  European  rulers  soon  reduces  the  tendency  to 
amok,  since  the  half-hysterical  temperament  in  which 
it  has  foundation  makes  any  sort  of  "  fuss "  a  grati- 
fication. 

Travellers  in  the  Philippines  are  invariably  charmed 


60  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

with  the  picturesque  appearance  of  the  Moros.  After 
the  somewhat  monotonous  semi-civilised  cream  muslins 
and  dark  cottons  of  the  other  Filipinos  and  Filipinas,  the 
barbarous,  fantastic  costume  of  the  Mohammedans 
comes  as  a  surprise.  Striped  silk  or  cotton  trousers, 
sometimes  so  long  as  to  splay  out  over  the  foot,  tight 
embroidered  jackets  of  apple-green  or  orange  studded 
with  countless  buttons,  bright  shawls  twisted  round  the 
waist,  and  gorgeous  spotted  handkerchiefs  made  into 
turbans  —  all  this  is  completed  by  an  array  of  knives, 
or  krisses,  of  elaborate  shape  and  workmanship.  More- 
over, every  man  of  importance  carries  an  elaborate  walk- 
ing-stick, and  is  followed  by  a  slave-boy  bearing  a  huge 
silver  box  in  which  are  his  betel  nut,  lime,  and  the  many 
ingredients  with  which  he  mixes  a  chewing-paste. 

Both  men  and  women  chew  constantly,  and  are  ren- 
dered hideous  in  consequence,  since  their  teeth  are  ivory 
black,  and  a  sort  of  red  saliva  swims  around  the  gums 
and  makes  their  protruding  lips  moist. 

The  Sultan  has  a  court  and  aspirations,  like  more 
than  one  Malay  monarch  whose  acquaintance  we  shall 
make  in  these  pages.  These  aspirations  are  in  the 
direction  of  European  improvements,  such  as  electric 
light  and  steam  launches,  and  since  the  arrival  of  the 
United  States  he  has  also  become  much  enamoured  of 
electric  fans  and  other  conveniences.  In  North  Borneo, 
where  he  used  to  be  a  frequent  visitor,  he  once  developed 
a  great  craving  to  hear  the  popping  of  soda-water 
bottles  —  he  was  not  thirsty,  but  he  liked  to  hear  the 
pop,  so  he  demanded  fresh  bottles,  one  after  the  other, 
till  his  host  began  to  feel  anxious.  Personally  the  Sul- 
tan of  Jolo  does  not  look  like  the  chief  of  a  piratical 
nation,  but  although  some  of  the  Moros  are  fine-looking 


MOROS  FROM   JOLO 


6i 

men  and  good  seamen,  it  must  be  remembered  that  cen- 
turies of  slave-holding  have  invariably  a  deteriorating 
effect,  and  that  owing  to  the  numbers  of  foreign  women 
captured  and  brought  to  their  harems,  the  blood  of  the 
Moros  is  far  from  pure.  Slavery  and  polygamy  are 
two  conditions  with  which  the  United  States  will  have 
to  deal,  and  as  both  have  their  roots  in  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion  the  task  will  be  no  easy  one. 

The  Filipino  proper,  as  has  been  already  said,  is  pri- 
marily a  Malay,  but  he  has  also  a  varying  amount  of 
foreign  blood  gained  from  intermarriage  with  Negritos, 
Indonesians,  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Europeans,  and  even  with  Mexi- 
cans, who  came  over  in  small 
numbers  after  the  Spanish  con- 
quest. The  children  of  Filipino 
mothers  and  Spaniards,  Chinese, 
Japanese,  or  other  foreigners, 
form  a  separate  class  known  as 
mestizos,  in  distinction  to  the  more 
or  less  pure  Filipinos.  The  Span- 
ish mestizos  form  a  sort  of  aris-  A  SPANISH  MESTIZA 
tocracy,  reckoning  their  social  status  according  to 
their  white  blood.  The  Chinese  mestizos,  of  whom 
there  are  said  to  be  as  many  as  five  hundred  thou- 
sand, form  the  majority  of  the  commercial  class,  and 
have  usually  more  brains  and  capacity  than  any  other. 
The  Malay  Filipinos  themselves  are  split  into  many 
tribes,  the  two  chief  divisions  being  the  Tagals  and 
Visayans,  who  speak  distinct  dialects  and  regard  each 
other  almost  as  foreigners,1  and  this  tribal  feeling  ex- 

1  Visayans  2,600,000;  Tagalogs,  1,700,000;  Bicols,  Ilocanos,  Pangasinans, 
Pampangas,  and  Cagayans  (numbering  from  500,000  to  150,000  per  tribe), 
and  a  number  of  others. 


62  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

tends  even  to  the  Tagal  and  Visayan  mestizos.  Both 
these  tribes,  when  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  had 
a  certain  degree  of  civilisation,  cultivated  the  ground, 
and  dwelt  in  settled  communities  under  tribal  govern- 
ment, and  no  better  confirmation  of  their  lack  of  real 
organisation  or  patriotic  feeling  can  be  found  than  the 
ease  with  which  they  were  added  to  the  Spanish  crown. 
The  priests  frequently  went  ahead  of  any  Spanish  force 
to  the  islands,  and  as  the  people  came  under  their  influ- 
ence, and  island  after  island  was  added  to  the  Spanish 
dominions,  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name,  the  Government 
frequently  found  that,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the 
priests,  it  was  not  necessary  to  maintain  any  force  on  the 
spot.  "  Give  me  forty  priests  instead !  "  said  a  governor 
who  was  offered  forty  regiments,  and  the  saying  grew  up 
that  a  priest  was  equal  to  a  regiment.  It  was  the  priest 
who  frequently  was  the  sole  representative  of  Spain  in 
scattered  villages  and  districts,  who  kept  an  eye  not 
only  on  native  officials  but  on  the  Spanish  governors 
\  and  even  the  governor-general  himself.  Each  fraternity 
had  its  representative  at  the  Court  of  Madrid,  more  power- 
ful than  many  of  the  grandees  and  counsellors.  The 
Friars,  as  they  are  always  termed  in  the  Philippines,  per- 
formed many  functions.  They  entirely  controlled  and 
provided  for  the  education  of  all  classes.  The  Govern- 
ment provided  for  teachers,  but  having  been  trained 
under  supervision  of  the  priests,  they  could  not  follow 
their  calling  without  interference,  for  the  Friars  were 
inspectors  of  education  and  could  secure  the  dismissal  of 
a  teacher  by  a  word.  Despite  the  large  sums  devoted  to 
education  the  mass  of  the  people  received  nothing  but 
the  rudiments,  and  the  determined  opposition  of  the 
Friars  to  the  Spanish  language  was  so  successful  that  in 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  63 

many  districts  nothing  but  the  native  dialect  is  known. 
When  the  missions  were  constituted  parishes  the  Friars 
also  became  parish  priests,  and  as  such  prepared  the  reg- 
isters, and  performed  marriage  and  other  ceremonies  for 
which,  although  there  was  a  fixed  rate,  they  extracted  pay- 
ment at  their  will,  often  at  exorbitant  rates.  When  the 
army  conscription  was  taken,  every  fifth  man  being  com- 
pelled to  serve,  it  was  the  Friars  who  prepared  the  lists. 
In  the  strict  use  of  the  confessional  which  they  prescribed, 
they  became  recipients  of  confidences,  and  knew  far 
more  about  a  man's  family  than  he  himself.  They  kept 
up  a  system  of  espionage  of  the  most  complete  descrip- 
tion, and  as  they  were  usually  the  only  men  in  the  place 
of  any  education,  or  who  could  speak  Spanish,  it  may  be 
imagined  how  absolute  was  their  power  over  all  the 
members  of  their  flock.  Of  course  the  priest's  word 
always  carried  conviction,  and  without  imputing  any 
desire  to  abuse  their  power  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  the 
best  of  priests  found  himself  in  a  position  of  such  com- 
plete and  unquestioned  control  of  the  lives  of  all  around 
him,  that  by  comparison  the  power  of  kings  and  kaisers 
sinks  into  insignificance. 

When  one  is  surprised  that  such  a  state  of  affairs 
should  have  grown  up,  we  must  remember  the  isolated 
position  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago,  as  far  as  Europe 
was  concerned,  in  the  days  before  the  cutting  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  Spanish  officials,  or  their  despatches,  had  to 
make  a  tedious  and  sometimes  perilous  journey  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  this  being  considered 
impracticable  the  Philippines  were  constituted  a  depend- 
ency of  Mexico  and  remained  so  for  over  three  cen- 
turies. Once  a  year  a  stately  galleon  battled  her  way 
across  from  shore  to  shore  of  the  Pacific  and  brought 


64  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

news  and  merchandise  from  West  to  East  and  from  East 
to  West.  It  was  during  this  era  that  for  a  short  period 
the  Union  Jack  was  hoisted  at  Manila,  in  the  year  1762, 
during  the  Peninsular  campaign,  but,  peace  having  been 
made  in  Europe,  the  British  evacuated  Manila  in  1774, 
after  a  brief  and  not  very  glorious  occupation.  The 
achievement  of  her  independence  by  Mexico  in  1820 
cut  the  cord  which  united  her  to  the  Philippines,  and 
from  that  date  began  some  of  the  most  flagrant  abuses 
in  the  government  of  the  latter. 

The  country  had  been  divided  into  provinces,  each 
with  a  governor,  known  as  the  Alcalde,  who  was  civil 
or  military  according  to  the  character  of  the  district 
he  governed.  His  functions  were  both  judicial  and 
executive,  and  from  his  court  the  only  appeal  was  to 
the  Governor-General.  Every  town  was  presided  over 
by  what  may  be  termed  a  municipal  council  and  a 
mayor,  known  as  the  gobernadorcillo,  who  reported  direct 
to  the  provincial  governor.  This,  in  brief,  was  the  simple 
scheme  of  Spanish  government. 

The  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal  brought  great  changes, 
and  if  the  government  had  been  inept  before,  it  became 
doubly  so,  and  corrupt  into  the  bargain.  This  was 
partly  due  to  the  horde  of  Spanish  place-hunters  who 
poured  into  the  country.  When  the  principal  post  was 
obtained  by  bribes,  or  even  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  as 
was  the  office  of  Governor-General  of  the  Philippines  in 
later  days,  one  can  imagine  the  means  used  to  secure  the 
smaller  offices.  To  pay  the  increased  number  of  sala- 
ries, on  account  of  the  innumerable  posts  created  to  pro- 
vide for  these  place-hunters,  fresh  taxes  were  imposed. 
The  people  grumbled  more  and  more,  and  even  gave 
vent  to  little  spurts  of  rebellion.  In  1867  a  new  police 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE  FILIPINOS  65 

known  as  the  guardia  civil,  and  composed  of  native 
soldiers  and  Spanish  officers,  was  organised.  These 
men,  though  doubtless  useful  in  maintaining  order  in 
the  towns,  were  exceedingly  unpopular  on  account  of 
the  harsh  and  arbitrary  methods  they  adopted,  while  the 
fact  that  their  word  would  convict  a  man,  and  that  their 
persons  were  to  be  held  sacred,  placed  them  in  a  danger- 
ously powerful  position.  At  the  same  time  the  country 
was  infested  with  robber  bands,  against  whom  the 
guardia  civil  made  little  headway.  The  corruption  of 
the  courts  was  another  crying  abuse.  The  dilatory 
hand  of  the  law  fell  only  when  private  greed  or  spite 
backed  by  a  long  purse  pulled  the  strings,  and  cases 
are  known  of  prisoners  remaining  ten  years  in  prison 
awaiting  trial.  Various  reforms  were  attempted.  In 
1886  the  executive  and  judicial  powers  were  separated, 
but  the  condition  of  the  people  remained  the  same,  and 
with  every  new  official  a  fresh  burden  fell  upon  the  tax- 
payer. It  was  not,  however,  so  much  the  actual  taxation 
that  roused  indignation,  as  the  "  squeeze,"  which  every 
one  in  authority,  priests  or  laymen,  took  out  of  the 
unfortunate  natives.  The  moneys  apportioned  by  Gov- 
ernment for  public  improvements  —  the  upkeep  of  roads, 
bridges,  and  so  forth  —  all  went  into  the  pockets  of  offi- 
cials, and  the  sums  voted  for  education  had  much  the  same 
fate.  The  Governor-General  himself  was  practically 
helpless  to  effect  reforms,  even  if  he  desired  to  do  so.  If 
he  tried  to  stem  the  unbridled  powers  of  the  friars  they 
appealed  to  their  procurators  at  Madrid  and  by  back- 
stairs influence  had  him  removed.  If  he  attempted 
reform  in  the  Government  itself  he  met  with  opposition 
and  opprobrium  from  hosts  of  officials  whose  interests 
were  involved  in  the  old  regime.  Usually,  however,  the 


66  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

Governor,  who  had  bought  his  post,  or  had  it  bought  for 
him  by  some  patron,  was  too  busy  trying  to  feather  his 
nest  during  his  short  tenure  of  office  —  three  years  — 
often  made  shorter  by  changes  in  the  Home  Govern- 
ment and  consequent  recall. 

The  mass  of  the  people  attributed  a  large  proportion 
of  these  abuses  to  the  Friars,  whose  influence  was  the 
one  permanent  thing  they  knew.  In  latter  days  Gov- 
ernor-Generals went  and  came  with  astonishing  rapidity, 
and  officials  varied  in  the  same  way,  but  the  priests 
remained  —  the  constant  representatives  of  the  ruling 
power  —  and  as  such  hated  by  the  people  who  were 
groaning  under  the  evils  of  misrule.  The  priests  knew 
the  value  of  their  influence  to  Spain,  and  used  it  to 
draw  many  concessions  from  the  government.  Thus 
they  became  freeholders  of  very  large  estates,  and  one 
of  the  bitterest  complaints  made  against  them  is  that 
they  exacted  exorbitant  taxes  from  their  tenants  on 
these  estates,  and  compelled  the  Government  to  assist 
in  collecting  them.  The  rights  acquired  from  the  Span- 
ish Government  by  the  Church  under  the  Concordat  of 
1851,  renewed  by  a  fresh  Covenant  in  1860,  will  have  to 
be  abrogated  either  by  Congress  or  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Mormon 
Church. 

In  making  these  statements  the  writer  has  no  desire 
to  decry  the  work  done  by  the  Church  in  the  Philip- 
pines. Many  of  the  men  sent  out  were  earnest  and 
devoted,  but  others  were  not  always  worthy  of  their 
Order  or  the  Holy  Religion  they  took  with  them.  It 
was  an  arduous  mission,  and  one  that  lasted  for  life,  but 
although  many  saintly  men  volunteered  for  it,  a  great 
number  were  merely  the  sweepings  of  Spanish  monas- 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  67 

teries.  The  proud,  passionate  nature  of  the  Spaniard 
• — the  same  under  a  cowl  as  under  the  cloak  of  the 
bravo  or  the  knightly  bearing  of  the  Don  —  was  well 
fitted  for  the  earlier  phases  of  a  mission  which  required 
at  first  blind  devotion  and  personal  courage,  but  abso- 
lutely unfitted  for  the  later  phases,  when  self-control  and 
conscientiousness  were  the  desiderata. 

Under  such  circumstances  there  is  unfortunately  no 
doubt  that  the  majority  of  the  Friars  abused  much  of 
their  power,  yielded  to  temptation,  and  lived  lives 
unworthy  of  their  high  calling.  Immorality  was  one 
of  the  most  heinous  of  their  offences ;  but,  although  it 
has  been  made  a  great  deal  of,  it  was  not  the  fault  which 
aroused  the  indignation  of  the  Filipino,  for  the  easy- 
going morals  of  the  people  saw  no  great  crime  in  it,  and 
a  woman  rather  gained  than  lost  in  social  station  if  her 
child  had  a  white  padre  for  its  father.  The  burden  laid 
upon  the  Filipinos  was  a  heavier  one.  They  had  lost 
their  liberty,  not  only  as  a  people  but  as  individuals.  No 
man  could  feel  that  the  secret  of  his  bosom  was  safe, 
and  the  terrible  power  granted  the  priests  of  denounc- 
ing "suspects,"  who  might  without  trial  be  deported, 
opened  a  vista  of  unknown  horrors  to  the  ignorant 
native. 

Any  one  who  desires  a  graphic,  though  painful,  picture 
of  the  Philippines  in  the  latter  days  of  this  regime  may 
read  the  translations  of  two  books  —  "  Noli  me  tangere" 
and  "El  Filibustero "  —  by  the  greatest  of  Filipinos, 
indeed  the  one  great  man  ever  produced  by  the  Malay 
race  —  Dr.  Rizal.  The  palpitating  life  in  these  stories 
can  only  be  equalled  in  the  best  literature  of  other  lands. 
Lacking  in  construction  they  aim,  like  the  works  of  the 
immortal  Jokai,  at  giving  a  series  of  pictures  of  life, 


68  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

photographic  in  their  accuracy,  and  withal  the  spirit  of 
the  Philippines,  the  essence,  atmosphere  —  call  it  what 
you  will  —  that  indefinable  touch,  which  only  genius  can 
give,  breathes  through  Rizal's  works  and  transfigures  his 
pages.  His  poetry  is  graceful  and  charming,  but  loses 
in  translation  even  more  than  his  novels,  and,  in  their 
English  form  at  least,  these  are  woefully  mutilated.  It 
was  the  death  of  Rizal  which,  partially  at  all  events, 
led  the  Filipinos  to  a  serious  revolt.  Banished  on 
account  of  his  books  to  a  lonely  island,  he  lived  in 
retirement,  doing  good  to  the  poor  people  round.  Influ- 
ential Filipinos  came  to  him  on  pretexts  of  ill-health,  for 
he  was  a  qualified  doctor  and  a  man  of  scientific  attain- 
ments, but  in  reality  they  wished  to  consult  him  on  the 
affairs  of  their  distressed  country.  Rizal  counselled 
moderation  and,  when  approached  by  the  leader  of  a 
new  secret  society  which  had  sprung  up  in  the  islands 
under  the  name  Katipunan,  and  was  attracting  large 
numbers  of  the  lower  orders,  advised  that  no  revo- 
lutionary methods  should  be  adopted.  When  an  out- 
break of  fever  in  Cuba  was  sweeping  away  thousands, 
he  volunteered  to  go  there,  and  was  actually  on  the 
way  when  his  enemies,  fearing  lest  he  should  escape, 
caused  his  recall  and  trial  for  treason.  The  chief 
evidence  against  him  was  that  of  certain  papers  dis- 
covered in  baggage  belonging  to  his  sister,  and  there 
are  many  people  who  maintain  that  these  were  not 
only  printed  but  placed  there  by  order  of  Rizal's  ene- 
mies, of  whom  the  Friars  were  chief.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  and  shot  in  the  back  on  the  Lunetta 
at  Manila,  the  usual  place  for  political  executions, 
and  the  fashionable  promenade  and  drive.  To  in- 
crease the  indignity  Filipino  soldiers  were  compelled 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND   THE    FILIPINOS  69 

to  form  the  firing  party,  and  not  Spanish  as  was  usual. 
The  beau  monde  of  Manila  witnessed  the  execution  with 
acclamation,  ladies  waving  their  kerchiefs  as  the  band 
played  "  La  Marcha  di  Cadiz."  They  little  thought  of 
the  swift  and  terrible  retribution  at  hand,  when  the 
despised  "  Indian,"  whom  one  of  the  Friars  had  described 
in  a  book  as  "  brother  to  the  carabao "  (the  buffalo  or 
beast  of  burden),  should  turn  and  sweep  his  Spanish 
conquerors  out  of  the  land. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  trace  the  various  stages  of 
the  Filipino  rebellions.  The  two  main  divisions  of  the 
Malay  family,  the  Tagals  and  the  Visayans,  took  up 
arms  at  different  times  and  on  different  pretexts.  Rebel- 
lions were  quelled  and  then  broke  out  again,  but  the  chief 
indignation  was  levelled  at  the  priests,  and  numbers  lost 
their  lives,  were  imprisoned,  or  driven  away.  The  chief 
Orders  against  which  the  Filipinos  rebelled  were  the 
Augustinian  and  Dominican  as  landholders,  and  the 
Recollets.  The  Jesuits,  having  once  been  banished 
on  account  of  their  interference  in  politics,  after  their 
return  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  education  and  sci- 
ence ;  and  it  is  to  them  that  we  owe  the  greater  part  of 
our  present  knowledge  of  the  Philippines,  the  charting 
of  coasts,  and  many  other  useful  works,  while  their 
world-famous  observatory  at  Manila  has  been  of  the 
greatest  service  to  sailors  in  these  troubled  seas,  fore- 
casts being  telegraphed  to  different  ports.  The  Jesuits 
consequently  did  not,  to  the  same  extent,  arouse  the 
animosity  of  the  people,  which  was  chiefly  directed 
against  those  Friars  who  were  acting  as  parish  priests. 
Besides  the  members  of  the  Orders  mentioned,  there 
were  a  small  number  of  others,  all  Spaniards,  engaged  in 
various  ways  and  a  large  number  of  native  priests.  The 


7o  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

latter  had  usually  been  trained  in  one  of  the  colleges, 
had  taken  orders,  and  were  acting  as  parish  priests.  As 
a  rule,  they  were  rough  and  ignorant  men,  and  their 
mode  of  life  was  lax,  but  they  did  not  arouse  the  indig- 
nation of  the  people  by  the  assumption  of  power,  as  did 
the  Spanish  Friars,  and  although  some  of  them  perished 
in  the  last  rising,  they  were  in  most  cases  permitted  to 
return  to  their  churches  after  a  time. 

The  final  insurrection,  which  had  been  seething  for 
ten  years,  began  in  1896,  when  the  Tagals  first  rose, 
imprisoning  and  murdering  some  of  the  Friars.  The 
movement  spread,  despite  the  sending  out  of  fresh 
Spanish  troops.  Disaffection  showed  itself  in  the  Fili- 
pino native  regiments.  The  Katipunan  and  other  soci- 
eties were  very  active,  and  among  the  leaders  Emilio 
Aguinaldo  made  his  appearance.  With  other  chiefs  he 
was,  however,  bought  off  for  a  time,  and  in  December 
1897  retired  to  Hong  Kong.  The  expulsion  of  the 
Friars,  which  had  been  promised,  was  not  carried  out, 
and  Aguinaldo  employed  the  money  in  buying  fresh 
arms.  The  rebellion  soon  broke  out  again,  and  the  con- 
flict recommenced,  great  barbarities  being  practised  on 
both  sides,  and,  in  March  1898,  several  regiments  revolted 
and  joined  the  insurgents.  But  a  new  force  now  arrived 
on  the  scene.  The  United  States  declared  war  with 
Spain,  and  in  May  Admiral  Dewey,  to  the  surprise 
of  every  one,  sailed  into  Manila  Bay,  destroyed  the 
Spanish  Fleet,  and  thus  began  the  American  conquest 
of  the  Philippines.  Aguinaldo  was  brought  over  from 
Hong  Kong  to  lead  the  rebels  against  Spain,  and  pro- 
claimed a  Dictatorial  Government.  In  August  the 
American  troops  entered  Manila,  the  Spaniards  offering 
hardly  any  resistance.  Between  the  collapse  of  Spanish 


THE   PHILIPPINES   AND   THE   FILIPINOS  71 

sovereignty  in  the  islands  and  the  establishment  of  the 
United  States  in  its  stead  (in  December)  there  was  a 
deplorable  hiatus,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  the 
United  States  had  not  contemplated  such  a  move,  but 
were,  as  one  of  their  generals  put  it,  literally  "pitch- 
forked into  the  Philippines."  During  this  interregnum, 
chaos  was  supreme.  Small  republics  were  formed 
which  exceeded  the  Spanish  Government  in  ineptitude 
and  corruption.  Robber  bands  were  let  loose,  and 
the  whole  country  was  in  confusion.  When  it  became 
apparent,  however,  that  the  United  States  had  no  inten- 
tion of  leaving  the  islands  to  work  out  their  own  salva- 
tion, a  new  phase  began.  The  Insurrecto  leaders,  having 
pledged  themselves  to  independence,  organised  resist- 
ance to  the  United  States,  inflaming  the  people  by  de- 
claring that  the  Americans  were  going  to  bring  back 
the  Friars.  Colour  was  given  to  this  by  the  fact  that 
they  could  not  see  their  way  to  a  wholesale  confiscation 
of  Church  lands,  and,  while  incurring  the  displeasure  of 
the  Filipinos  by  protecting  the  Friars  to  a  certain  extent, 
they  had  all  the  weight  of  the  latter  against  them,  for 
the  priests  felt  that  the  return  of  Spain  was  the  one 
hope  of  retaining  their  position.  The  relations  of  the 
Filipinos  and  Americans  became  more  and  more  strained 
after  the  Peace  Commission  had  signed  the  Treaty,  and 
on  February  4,  1899,  open  hostilities  began. 

The  further  aspects  of  the  American  campaign  in  the 
Philippines  are  referred  to  elsewhere.  Meanwhile,  let  us 
see  what  manner  of  man  was  the  "little  brown  brother" 
who  was  fighting  so  keenly  for  liberty. 

The  term  "  Filipino,"  strictly  speaking,  applies  to  all 
who  are  born  in  the  Philippines,  but  it  is  necessary  here, 
at  the  very  outset,  to  make  several  distinctions.  It  is 


72  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

incorrect  to  speak  of  the  "  Filipino  nation,"  for  there  is 
in  reality  no  such  thing.  The  Philippine  Islands,  physi- 
cally broken  up  and  scattered  over  a  vast  area  (roughly 
i coo  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  600  miles  in  its 
maximum  width),  are  inhabited,  as  has  been  already  said, 
by  a  number  of  different  tribes  and  races,  all  belonging 
to  one  or  other  of  the  three  great  families  already  men- 
tioned, but  remarkably  diverse  in  customs.  Far  from 
being  united  by  any  national  spirit  or  sentiment,  a  great 
deal  of  jealousy  and  suspicion  exists  between  many  of 
these  tribes.  The  Negritos  are  practically  a  quantite 
negligeable,  and  need  not  be  described  at  length.  They 
are  dwelling  peacefully  under  American  protection,  but 
are  decaying,  and  will  disappear  like  the  aborigines  of 
Tasmania.  The  pagan,  warlike,  and  physically  superior 
Indonesians  have  always  been  in  a  condition  of  "every 
man's  hand  against  his  neighbour."  They  offer  no 
organised  resistance  as  a  rule,  and  will  probably  settle 
down  quietly  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  It  will  be 
interesting  to  watch  the  attempts  at  civilising  them. 
The  man  who  is  giving  all  the  trouble  is  the  Malay,  or 
his  half-brother  the  mestizo,  and  it  is  him  that  we  are 
about  to  discuss. 

Although  the  different  families  of  the  race,  such  as 
the  Tagals  of  the  north  (spread  over  Central  Luzon, 
and  southward  as  far  as  the  coast  of  Mindoro),  and  the 
Visayans  of  the  south  (inhabiting  chiefly  the  six  islands 
between  Luzon  and  Mindanao  known  as  Panay,  Negros, 
Cebu,  Bohol,  Leyte,  and  Samar)  differ  in  character, 
speech,  superstitions,  and  even  in  a  minor  degree  in 
appearance  and  manners,  there  are  two  strong  bonds 
uniting  them  all.  The  first  is  the  Malay  strain ;  the 
second  is  the  Christian  civilisation  introduced  by  Spain. 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS 


73 


The  people  are  first  Malays,  then  Christians  of  a  some- 
what peculiar  type,  and  then  Tagals  or  Visayans.  In 
these  generalisations  the  Mohammedans  of  the  south 
are  of  course  excluded. 

The  costume  of  the  country  is  quite  distinctive,  and 
is  doubtless  a  modification  of  that  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards,  altered  to 
suit  conditions  of  cli- 
mate. The  men  are 
clad  in  white  trousers 
and  vest,  over  which 
is  worn  a  collarless 
shirt  with  embroidered 
bosom  and  cuffs  made 
of  the  native  jusi, 
a  transparent  muslin, 
either  white  or  cin- 
namon coloured.  A 
broad-brimmed  hat 
completes  a  very  cool 
and  airy  costume,  which 
is  frequently  washed 
and  is  usually  spotlessly 
clean.  The  shirt  hangs 
outside  the  trousers,  and  the  feet  are  usually  bare.  This 
is  the  dress  of  all  men  of  the  poorer  class  and  of  servants, 
cab-drivers,  and  others  of  the  same  social  status.  As 
soon  as  he  can  afford  it,  however,  the  Filipino  must 
have  a  suit  of  black  broadcloth,  with  low-cut  waistcoat  to 
show  an  expanse  of  embroidered  shirt.  With  his  black 
billycock  hat  and  patent  leather  shoes  he  succeeds  in 
looking  extremely  like  an  undertaker  at  a  funeral.  The 
better-class  mestizos  dress  like  Europeans,  except  that 


VISAYAN    U1KL 


74  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

they  display  an  undue  affection  for  black  broadcloth  and 
patent  leather  shoes,  which  are  de  rigueur  for  all  occa- 
sions of  ceremony.  The  charming  native  costume  of 
the  Filipina,  on  the  contrary,  is  worn  by  all  classes  alike, 
and  it  is  only  those  who  are  particularly  anxious  to 
accentuate  their  European  affinities  who  adopt  the  tight- 
fitting  dress  of  western  women.  The  Filipina  wears  a 


WASHING   CLOTHES 


skirt  of  checked  cotton  or  of  plain  or  richly  embroidered 
silk,  according  to  her  means.  Whatever  the  material  it 
is  rather  short  in  front  and  has  a  little  train  behind,  and 
she  lifts  it  with  much  coquetry  to  show  her  frilled  white 
petticoat.  The  poorer  Visayan  women  wear  a  sarong 
in  stead  of  a  skirt,  and  the  Tagals  add  a  sort  of  apron  of 
black,  which  is  worn  behind  and  fastens  round  the  waist 
in  front.  A  low-cut  sleeveless  chemise  is  worn  on  the 
body,  daintily  trimmed  according  to  the  means  of  the 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND   THE   FILIPINOS 


75 


wearer,  and  over  this  is  a  loose  muslin  jacket,  or  camisa, 
cut  low,  and  with  wide  bell-shaped  sleeves  starched  to 
stick  out  on  either  side.  Over  the  shoulders  is  a  panuela 
or  folded  handkerchief,  also  of  muslin  and  stiffly  starched, 
but  it  is  not  unusual  in  the  streets  to  see  this  used  as  a 
sort  of  headgear  by  the  poorer  women,  and  coquetry 
demands  that  the  camisa  should  drop  at  one  side  and 
show  the  bare  shoulder.  On  the  camisa  and  panuela 


THE   TuILET 


which  among  the  poor  are  of  thin  muslin,  sometimes 
worked  at  the  edges,  are  lavished  the  most  costly 
embroideries.  The  beautiful  silk  muslins  known  as 
piha  are  also  much  used  and  find  great  favour  with 
European  and  American  ladies.  When  dressed  for  the 
evening  the  Filipina  is  a  charming  little  person,  and  a 
ball-room  filled  with  the  tiny  figures  in  their  bright  silk 
skirts,  filmy  muslins,  and  glittering  diamonds  is  a  pretty 
sight.  The  little  brown  faces,  carefully  dabbed  with 
powder,  look  out  with  solemn  brown  eyes  from  all  this 


76  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 

frippery.  Decorum  has  been  strictly  inculcated,  and  the 
senoritas  are  somewhat  grave  and  sparing  of  their  words, 
but  a  bold  cavalier  can  win  a  shy  smile  and  a  coquettish 
glance  from  the  brown  eyes. 

The  Filipina  knows  that  her  costume  becomes  her  as 
none  other  would.  Tight  European  clothes  show  the 
defects  of  her  rather  puny  figure,  and  reveal  the  ungrace- 
fulness  of  her  bearing,  which  is  extraordinary.  When 
she  walks  she  shuffles  along,  swinging  her  hips  and  body, 
and  this  is  accentuated  by  her  love  of  the  smallest  and 
highest  heeled  shoes  into  which  she  can  squeeze  her 
naturally  tiny  feet.  The  poorer  women,  who  are  always 
barefoot,  are  less  clumsy,  and  in  many  provinces  the  prac- 
tice of  carrying  everything  on  the  head  produces  a  free 
and  upright  carriage.  Children  are  carried  on  the  hip,  a 
custom  ugly  in  itself  and  trying  to  the  women,  who  prob- 
ably owe  part  of  their  ungracefulness  to  it. 

Probably  nothing  worse  in  its  way  can  be  imagined 
than  Filipino  cooking,  and  a  banquet  given  in  a  pro- 
vincial town  is  a  formidable  repast  to  all  save  those  with 
the  toughest  digestions.  There  is  the  inevitable  ten- 
dency, caught  from  the  Spanish,  to  cook  everything  in 
oil  and  flavour  it  with  garlic,  and  when  it  is  added  that  a 
hospitable  Filipino  always  insists  on  one's  drinking  cham- 
pagne —  even  though  it  be  of  some  weird  brand  never 
before  seen,  and  bought  from  the  Chinese  store  —  it  may 
be  imagined  that  feasting  in  the  Philippines  is  no  joke. 
It  is  not  unusual  in  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do  Filipinos 
to  see  real  silver,  good  china  adorned  with  a  monogram, 
and  cut  glass  on  the  table,  and  among  the  wealthy  haci- 
enda owners  and  professional  men  the  plate  is  often 
extremely  handsome  and  valuable.  Clocks  and  jewellery 
are  two  other  weaknesses  of  the  Filipinos.  Many  of  the 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  77 

tradesmen's  wives  and  daughters  wear  costly  and  artistic 
necklaces  and  other  trinkets,  diamonds  being  the  favour- 
ite gems. 

The  daily  life  of  the  majority  of  the  country  people  is 
not  at  all  strenuous.  Some  one  must,  of  course,  do  the 
work,  but  the  average  Filipino  takes  care  that  his  share 
is  as  light  as  possible.  Driving  a  carriage  for  hire  is 
about  the  most  congenial  occupation  he  can  find,  and 


BASKET    MAKING 


if  he  is  fortunate  enough  to  live  near  a  big  town  he 
can  pick  up  a  very  good  living  in  this  way,  for  no  one 
walks  in  the  Philippines.  If  his  wife  earns  enough 
money,  by  weaving  or  embroidery  or  in  the  tobacco 
manufactory,  to  support  the  family,  the  Filipino  is  quite 
content  to  be  a  gentleman  at  large,  and  will  spend  the 
day  petting  and  training  his  fighting  cock.  Every  Fili- 
pino is  passionately  addicted  to  the  sport  of  cock-fight- 
ing, and  will  spend  his  last  farthing  in  betting  on  the 
favourite.  In  all  towns  and  villages  there  is  an  enclosure 


78  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE  PACIFIC 

for  the  fighting,  an  entrance  fee  being  charged  and  bets 
freely  made  up  to  the  last  round.  Often  a  poor  man 
will  lavish  his  all  on  a  bird,  feed  and  train  it  for  months, 
only  to  lose  it  by  one  stroke ;  for  the  sharp  spurs  attached 
to  the  bird's  legs  are  formidable  weapons,  and  the  cocks 
are  encouraged  to  fight  to  the  death.  For  his  bird  to 
show  the  white  feather  is  a  matter  of  the  deepest  chagrin 
and  shame  to  the  owner,  and  should  that  happen  he  as 
likely  as  not  will  wring  the  neck  of  the  poor  thing  which 
has  been  his  pet  and  companion  for  months.  When 
the  Filipino  dandy  takes  his  walks  abroad  he  carries  his 
cock  tucked  under  his  arm,  just  as  in  other  climes  the 
dude,  or  masher,  sports  a  cane. 

Music  is  an  ever  present  passion  with  all  Filipinos, 
and  every  town,  village,  or  hamlet  possesses  a  band. 
The  musicians  are  clad  in  neat  cotton  uniforms  and  play 
on  a  variety  of  instruments,  wood-wind  being  the  most 
popular,  while  the  drum  is  never  absent.  There  are 
many  ingenious  native  instruments  fashioned  of  bamboo, 
and  if  he  can  get  nothing  else  the  Filipino  carves  with  his 
knife  a  tiny  rude  guitar,  which  he  provides  with  cat-gut 
strings  and  on  which  he  tinkle-tinkles  all  day  long  the 
saddest  and  most  monotonous  little  tunes.  The  writer 
has  heard  a  Filipino  sailor,  with  a  flute  improvised  from 
a  bit  of  piping  punched  into  holes  with  a  red-hot  skewer, 
play  an  extraordinary  range  of  airs  and  variations,  in  per- 
fect tune  and  with  much  artistic  feeling.  Thus,  with  an 
occasional  spell  of  work,  his  cock-fighting  and  music,  the 
Filipino  is  one  of  the  laziest  and  happiest  of  mortals,  and 
lest  life  should  be  dull  the  Church  provides  any  number 
of  feast  days  or  fiestas  (ninety  per  annum,  not  including 
Sundays)  on  which  he  can  feel  that  he  is  performing 
a  religious  duty  by  joining  in  a  flower-decked  procession 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND   THE   FILIPINOS  79 

to  the  large  empty  church,  and  after  a  period  of  much 
outward  devotion  can  return  to  feast,  dance,  and  play 
till  sunset.  Even  funerals  are  made  an  occasion  for  a 
certain  amount  of  merry-making,  and  every  neighbour 
must  contribute  what  he  can  to  make  the  function  a 
success.  The  wealthier  classes  have  their  musical  At 
Homes  and  afternoon  receptions,  when  the  ladies  sit 
round  the  room  and  the  gentlemen  hover  near  the 
door,  just  as  in  drawing-rooms  in  other  climes, 
while  Sefiora  A  performs  wonderful  gymnastics  on  the 
piano  or  Senorita  B  sings  a  passionate  Spanish  love- 
song  in  a  thin  reedy  treble.  Dulces  (small  but  deadly 
pink  and  white  cakes)  are  handed  round  with  sweet 
champagne,  and  the  whole  may  conclude  with  a  sup- 
per and  a  dance.  The  native  dances  are  no  longer 
known.  The  favourite  dance  is  the  rigodon,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  merely  a  few  figures  from  the  quadrilles,  but 
since  the  American  conquest  the  polka  and  "  two-step  " 
have  made  their  appearance. 

The  lives  of  the  better  class  women  must  be  singu- 
larly empty.  Even  the  poor  ones,  who  have  children  to 
look  after,  food  to  cook,  and  are  often  also  the  bread- 
winners, seem  to  have  a  great  deal  of  leisure  to  dispose 
of,  which  they  spend  washing  and  combing  the  long 
black  hair  of  which  they  are  so  proud,  or  sitting  on  the 
steps  of  their  houses  smoking  and  gossiping.  Those 
who  do  not  have  to  work  fill  up  their  day  with  visits, 
an  afternoon  drive,  a  little  fancy-work,  or  practice  on  the 
piano.  The  simplicity  of  household  arrangements  makes 
housekeeping  the  lightest  affair  possible,  and  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  dainty  Filipino  ladies  who  are  seen 
driving  in  the  afternoon  in  exquisite  embroidered  cos- 
tumes may  be  found,  later  on,  squatting  in  the  servants' 


80  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

quarters,  eating  their  supper  out  of  the  dishes  on  the 
floor.  In  this  they  strongly  resemble  the  women  of 
Spanish  America,  down  at  heels  and  dirty  in  the  morn- 
ing, radiant  and  exquisite  —  outwardly  —  at  night. 

Before  passing  on  to  a  critical  analysis  of  the  Filipino 
character,  which  has  become  a  very  important  element 
in  the  present  situation,  the  writer  ventures  to  take  his 
indulgent  reader  in  the  spirit  to  visit  a  typical  Filipino 
town,  so  that  he  may  understand  more  fully  the  actual 
everyday  life  of  the  Philippines,  and  from  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  people. 

Let  us  cruise  through  the  blue  waters,  constantly 
broken  with  islands  of  varying  shape,  some  green  and 
wooded  to  the  water's  edge,  some  rising  sheer  out  of  the 
sea,  or  showing  the  scarred  sides  of  mountains  rolling 
back  fold  after  fold  till  the  purple  distance  is  lost  in 
fleecy  clouds.  Some  of  the  towns  lie  clustered  on  the 
shore,  looking  out  perhaps  on  a  landlocked  bay.  These 
are  the  most  favoured  as  far  as  scenery  is  concerned, 
for  nothing  can  compare  with  the  beauty  of  a  bay, 
especially  in  these  sunny  seas,  when  the  graceful  curve 
holds  a  little  brown  town  with  picturesque  nipa  huts 
half  buried  in  palms,  and  a  big  white  church  stands 
like  a  ghostly  sentinel  over  all,  much  as  in  past  times 
the  spiritual  fathers  towered  over  their  flocks  and  safe- 
guarded the  interests  of  Spain.  Then  the  amphitheatre 
of  hills  and  the  smiling  stretch  of  water  receive  a  magic 
touch,  and  the  scene  contains  the  element  of  human  life 
and  interest  necessary  to  complete  its  beauty. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  town  is  situated  a  little  inland. 
As  a  rule  one  can  gain  access  to  it  by  river,  as  well  as 
by  a  rough  road  which  starts  from  a  primitive  landing- 
stage.  The  road  runs  through  plantations  of  palms  and 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS 


81 


bamboos,  and  between  the  delicate  tracery  of  the  latter 
we  get  exquisite  glimpses  of  the  river,  or  perhaps  of  the 
distant  bay.  As  one  nears  the  town,  the  quilas  or  per- 
haps an  antique  victoria  bumping  over  large  ruts  in  the 
road,  one  passes  a  number  of  paddy-fields,  marked  out  and 
banked  up,  but  alas !  dry  and  barren.  A  flock  of  locusts 
arises  from  one  of  these,  and  like  a  black  cloud  sweeps 
across  the  scene.  Then  come  little  nipa  huts,  often 


BINANDO   CHURCH,   MANILA 

poor  and  tumbledown,  but  full  to  the  brim  of  the  little 
brown  people  and  bubbling  over  with  children.  Soon 
the  huts  assume  more  regular  proportions,  and  are 
fenced  in  with  bamboo,  till  at  last  they  form  a  wide 
street.  Many  of  the  houses  have  their  front  walls  taken 
down  and  on  the  floor  of  the  first  room,  which  is  raised 
from  the  ground,  is  some  little  provision  of  fruit,  betel- 
nut,  and  other  indefinable  luxuries  dear  to  the  Filipino. 
As  a  rule  the  whole  family  is  occupied  in  selling  these 
commodities,  and  for  that  purpose  is  grouped  round 
them  in  various  recumbent  attitudes. 


Sz  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Presently  stone  and  wooden  buildings  begin  to  take 
the  place  of  nipa,  and  whitewashed  walls  and  curved 
window  bars  are  strongly  reminiscent  of  Spain,  as  is 
also  the  method  of  building,  for  in  all  houses  —  the 
best  as  well  as  the  worst  —  one  enters  by  the  front 
door  into  a  dark  and  evil-smelling  yard,  with  stables  and 
offices  on  either  hand,  and  has  to  go  up  a  broad  flight 
of  stairs  to  reach  the  dwelling-rooms.  This  is  like  many 
Spanish  houses,  but  not  those  into  which  was  introduced 
the  pretty  Moorish  patio,  with  its  square  of  garden,  its 
fountain  and  marble  statues ;  nor  is  the  upper  storey  built 
with  wide  verandahs,  as  is  the  picturesque  and  comfort- 
able custom  in  British  tropical  colonies.  The  houses 
from  outside  present  a  closed-up,  bare,  forbidding  look, 
and  this  is  heightened  by  the  glare  of  whitewash,  only 
relieved  by  a  little  blue  paint  on  the  woodwork.  The 
dominant  feature  in  every  town  is  its  church  and  con- 
vento  —  in  the  case  of  larger  places  it  would  be  more 
correct  to  use  the  plural.  The  ecclesiastical  architec- 
ture of  these  islands  is  of  course  varied  according  to  the 
size  and  richness  of  the  place,  but  in  such  a  provincial 
town  as  this  there  is  nothing  very  elaborate  about  the 
building.  A  large  and  lofty  body  to  the  church  is  inva- 
riable, so  large  and  so  lofty,  though  merely  like  a  huge 
barn,  that  one's  first  sensation  is  of  surprise  at  the  vast 
empty  space  —  a  striking  contrast  to  the  crowded  houses 
and  tiny  nipa  huts.  The  tower  is  sometimes  built  away 
from  the  body  of  the  church,  as  a  precaution  against 
earthquakes,  and  not  infrequently  the  frontage  of  the 
church  is  flanked  with  two  small  towers.  In  any  case, 
the  shape  of  the  tower  is  of  the  dome  order  —  with  pil- 
lars, headings,  and  ornaments  which  suggest  the  Renais- 
sance. Inside,  the  decorations  are  of  the  rudest  —  cheap 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  83. 

pictures  of  the  "Stations  of  the  Cross,"  with  descriptive 
legends  in  French  and  Spanish,  tawdry  altars  and  numer- 
ous doll-like  figures,  tricked  out  in  shabby  velvet  and  tar- 
nished gold.  Tall,  dilapidated  candlesticks,  bent  and 
twisted,  stand  before  the  altar  with  drooping  candles, 
everything  seems  neglected  and  dirty,  and  we  wonder  if 
the  all-mighty  Friars,  who  ruled  the  land  and  squeezed 
the  money  out  of  the  people  to  build  these  big  churches, 
took  more  pride  in  the  upkeep  of  God's  house  than  do 
the  native  priests  who  alone  are  left  to  minister  there. 
Many  churches  are  adorned  with  silver  altars ;  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Cebu  is  a  tall  and  splendid  one,  the  reredos 
tapering  to  a  point  almost  as  high  as  the  roof.  These 
are  dirty  and  dim,  a  fit  emblem  of  the  superstition  which 
prompted  their  donors,  if  report  says  true,  to  leave  money 
for  them  when  at  the  point  of  death,  urged  to  this  resti- 
tution for  the  sins  of  a  lifetime  by  the  representations  of 
greedy  Friars.  The  pure  silver  of  faith  under  such  con- 
ditions became  as  black  and  dull  as  these  corroding 
altars. 

A  gallery  at  the  back  of  the  church  probably  contains 
a  few  of  the  saints  not  just  then  in  use.  Stripped  of 
their  finery  they  stand  in  wooden  stiffness,  and  one  is 
tempted  to  more  moralising  over  the  sight.  A  staircase 
leads  from  this  gallery  to  the  convento  —  not  a  convent 
but  the  dwelling  of  the  Friars  or  of  the  parish  priest. 
This  is  always  large,  containing  many  rooms  and  com- 
manding the  best  outlook  in  the  town.  The  stables  on 
the  lower  floor,  built  to  accommodate  several  horses  and 
carriages,  are  now  usually  empty,  though  sometimes  one 
or  two  old  victorias  stand  about  in  the  yard.  This,  in 
Rizal's  terrible  book  "  Noli  me  tangere,"  was  the  only 
place  which  the  unhappy  schoolmaster  could  get  to 


84 


THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 


instruct  his  pupils ;  and,  fresh  from  those  powerful 
pages,  the  whole  scene  rises  before  us.  The  bright 
sunshine  striking  on  the  whitewashed  walls  outside  and 
making  the  darkness  of  the  inner  court  more  intense ; 
the  master  seated  in  one  of  these  old  carriages,  his  little 
brown  pupils  perched  around,  or  clustering  on  the  broad, 
dirty  stone  staircase;  the  broken  floor,  the  smell  of  ani- 


V1EW   FROM   VERANDAH   OF  A   CONVENTO 


mals,  the  children  gabbling  over  their  scanty  books  —  it 
all  comes  back  to  us  like  the  memory  of  a  dream. 

One  particular  convento  makes  a  never-to-be-forgotten 
picture.  Situated  on  the  side  of  a  steep  hill  it  has  a 
wide  stone  verandah,  from  which  one  looks  down  over 
huts  half  buried  in  palms  to  the  sea.  A  coral  reef  runs 
out  and  makes  a  little  bay,  and  beyond  this  sparkling 
white  line  with  its  fringe  of  palms  lies  the  ocean,  with 
a  score  of  white-sailed  fishing  boats  skimming  over  its 
blue  bosom,  and  a  big  white  transport  lying  lazily  in 
their  midst.  This  convento  is  approached  on  the  steep 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE  FILIPINOS  85 

side  by  a  flight  of  steps  cut  in  the  rock,  which  pass  under 
a  rough  arch ;  and  the  whole  effect  of  the  big  white 
building  with  its  broad  piazza  perched  on  the  side  of 
the  rocky  hill  is  more  Italian  than  Spanish.  We  might 
be  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Como  —  the  Friars  certainly 
know  how  to  choose  sites  for  their  dwellings.  The 
space  in  front  of  the  church  and  convento  is  invariably 
laid  out  with  grass  and  trees,  and  not  infrequently  forms 
a  sort  of  public  square.  On  the  other  side  stand  the 
Governor's  palace,  the  municipal  and  other  public  build- 
ings in  which,  however,  the  towns  as  a  rule  are  poor. 
The  public  buildings,  where  they  exist,  are  of  the 
Spanish  type,  and  have  spacious  rooms  with  very  little 
furniture,  in  which  the  most  remarkable  thing  is  the 
beauty  of  the  ill-kept  flooring.  Very  fine  wood  is  found 
in  the  islands,  and  with  such  polishing  as  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  housekeeper  would  bestow,  these  floors  would  be 
very  handsome. 

Many  of  the  towns  have  theatres,  and  one  visited  by 
the  writer  could  boast  of  its  opera  house.  This  was 
built  entirely  of  wood  and  the  interior  painted  and  deco- 
rated with  medallions  of  the  heads  of  great  composers, 
Venus  and  attendant  cherubs  in  wonderful  foreshorten- 
ing on  the  roof,  and  appropriate  inscriptions.  The  house 
was  arranged  much  like  our  own  theatres,  and  had  a 
dress-circle  and  gallery  besides  the  lower  floor.  Another 
and  simpler  theatre  was  entirely  of  bamboo,  the  shape 
being  circular.  Before  the  downfall  of  the  Spanish,  the 
larger  towns  of  the  archipelago  were  frequently  visited 
by  travelling  Italian  opera  companies,  which  accounts 
largely  for  the  number  of  familiar  airs  played  by  the 
imitative  Filipino  bands. 

The  markets  are  generally  held  in  spaces  railed  off 


86  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

and  provided  with  shelters.  Under  these  are  spread  out 
on  stalls  all  imaginable  articles  of  food  and  every  variety 
of  sarongs  and  camisas,  pina,  jusi  and  coarser  cloths. 
Other  wares  are  arranged  in  flat  round  baskets,  if  the 
owner  is  not  able  to  secure  a  covered  stall,  and  the  ground 
is  so  cumbered  with  baskets  and  squatting  Filipinos  that 
it  is  difficult  to  thread  one's  way  among  them.  Every 
house  possesses  its  loom,  and  there  are  so  many  selling 
the  pretty  cottons  that  one  wonders  who  is  left  to  buy. 
At  one  part  of  the  market  there  are  great  piles  of  creamy 
strands,  the  fibre  of  the  banana  leaves  from  which  the 
flesh  has  been  scraped,  or  of  the  cocoanut,  beaten  fine. 
These  are  likewise  for  sale,  and  must  be  taken  home, 
spun  into  fine  threads  and  dyed. 

These  are  the  sights  of  a  Filipino  town  —  the  big, 
white,  cool  convento  and  church ;  the  busy,  crowded, 
sunny  market  full  of  brown  faces  and  creamy-yellow 
muslin  dresses,  with  occasional  touches  of  sober  blues 
or  rich  reds ;  the  little  green  squares,  and  a  few  solemn 
Spanish  houses.  Inside  the  mestizo  houses  of  the  better 
class  there  is  little  furniture,  and  as  a  rule  not  much 
attempt  at  decoration.  A  piano,  chairs,  tables,  and  a 
large  picture  of  the  Virgin  are  invariable,  and  the  bed- 
rooms contain  little  beside  the  carved  wooden  bed,  with 
a  grass  mat,  or  putati,  instead  of  mattress.  There  is 
always,  however,  an  extraordinary  collection  of  lamps, 
clocks,  and  watches  —  where  do  they  come  from  ?  —  the 
lamps  out  of  order  and  the  timepieces,  of  course,  not 
going.  The  dresses  of  the  rich  senoras  and  senoritas 
are  kept  in  rooms  fitted  with  large  wardrobes,  and  they 
frequently  possess  a  great  number  of  these  costumes,  all 
made,  of  course,  on  the  same  lines.  Very  large  sums  are 
paid  for  embroidered  and  hand-painted  dresses,  and  some 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  87 

of  the  finest  are  made  in  the  convents  at  Manila  and  else- 
where. Three  hundred  pounds  was  the  price  to  be 
paid  for  one  dress,  on  which  the  sisters  and  their  pupils 
had  been  at  work  many  months.  In  a  country  where 
the  French  cleaner  is  unknown,  the  ladies  —  despite  the 
simplicity  of  their  costumes  —  can  achieve  considerable 
extravagance  by  having  their  dainty  loose-sleeved  bodices 
embroidered  with  designs  of  flowers  in  ribbon,  tinsel, 
spangles,  and  even  seed  pearls. 

In  the  poorer  houses  —  those  which  are,  however, 
better  than  the  nipa  huts  —  the  furniture  seems  to  be 
confined  to  hand  looms  and  beds,  several  of  the  latter 
standing  in  the  large  empty  rooms  with  unswept  floors. 
On  the  ground  floor,  or  somewhere  in  the  back  premises, 
cooking  and  eating  go  on ;  but  the  family  lives  mostly 
out  of  doors,  and  even  when  at  home  seems  to  spend 
most  of  its  time  hanging  out  of  the  windows.  Suppose 
it  is  a  fiesta  —  and  such  are  of  weekly  occurrence  — 
coloured  cloths  will  be  hung  out  of  the  windows,  long 
branches  of  palm  stuck  into  the  ground  in  front  of  the 
house,  and  paper  lanterns  and  flags  carried  about  by  the 
smallest  and  raggedest  gamins.  An  original  decoration 
once  seen  consisted  of  egg-shells  carefully  impaled  on 
the  spikes  of  a  plant,  the  effect  being  that  of  some  new 
and  curious  flower.  On  any  grand  occasion,  such  as 
Easter,  or  the  visit  of  one  of  the  United  States'  Com- 
missions, the  whole  town  is  en  fete.  Elaborate  arches 
of  bamboo,  covered  with  red  and  white  paper,  and  hung 
with  wreaths,  span  the  roads ;  pavilions  constructed  of 
trellis  work  and  covered  with  greenery  receive  the 
visitors.  On  one  occasion,  at  which  the  writer  was 
present,  after  our  party  had  been  towed  from  the  boat 
to  such  a  pavilion  on  two  barges,  elaborately  made  into 


88  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

rustic  arbours,  the  conclusion  of  the  President's  speech 
was  the  signal  for  the  release  of  two  white  pigeons, 
which  fluttered  away  from  a  paper  lantern  hung  from 
the  roof,  apparently  much  embarrassed  by  the  ribbons 
with  which  they  were  decorated. 

A  Filipino  banquet  is  remarkable,  not  only  for  its 
cooking,  already  described,  but  in  little  quaint  contriv- 
ings  similar  to  the  release  of  doves  already  mentioned. 
The  writer,  staying  in  a  village  in  Mindanao,  had  the  op- 
portunity of  witnessing  the  preparations  for  such  a  func- 
tion in  honour  of  the  Civil  Commission.  A  big  kitchen 
was  made  of  green  bamboo,  temporary  ovens  and  open 
fireplaces  being  constructed  with  the  utmost  ingenuity, 
since  there  was  no  Filipino  kitchen  equal  to  the  task  of 
cooking  such  a  Gargantuan  meal  as  was  thought  neces- 
sary for  the  occasion.  The  Insurgents  had,  only  a  few 
weeks  before,  been  fighting  round  the  town,  and  some 
ten  days  prior  to  the  banquet  had  laid  down  their  arms 
and  begun  to  come  in  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  villagers,  many  of  whom  had  been  in  hiding  in  the 
mountains,  came  stealing  back  to  occupy  their  old  huts 
and  houses  —  what  remained  of  them.  American  sol- 
diers were  quartered  in  every  available  corner  and 
picketed  in  the  streets.  All  this  was  somewhat  unfavour- 
able for  the  preparation  of  a  banquet,  but  committees 
were  formed ;  some  promised  cooked  dishes,  others  meat, 
fish,  eggs,  or  vegetables.  Wines  were  produced  from 
somewhere,  cakes  and  sweets  manufactured  galore.  All 
day  long  the  village  was  busy ;  people  ran  to  and  fro 
carrying  glass  dishes  or  chairs,  or  pots  of  fern  and  plants. 
Decoration  is  not  a  difficult  matter  in  the  Philippines, 
and  is  usually  solved  by  cutting  down  small  groves  of 
palm-trees  which  are  stuck  in  holes  and  form  handsome 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE  FILIPINOS  89 

avenues  in  the  shabby  streets,  or  are  used  to  literally 
line  a  tumble-down  banqueting-hall.  With  a  fine  dis- 
regard for  associations  the  banqueting-hall  on  this  occa- 
sion was  a  room  in  what  used  to  be  the  headquarters  of 
the.  Spanish,  since  appropriated  by  the  Insurgents,  and 
now  used  by  the  Colonel  of  the  United  States  regiment 
in  occupation.  The  old  names  in  Spanish  still  remained 
in  white  paint  over  the  doors  —  The  Head  Office  Tenth 
Division,  The  General's  Office,  and  so  forth — and  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  floated  before  it.  The  banquet  was  a 
great  success.  The  stewed  kid,  ragout  of  carabao,  fish 
with  chilis,  fowl  and  rice,  and  many  other  dishes,  followed 
each  other  somewhat  erratically,  owing  to  the  spasmodic 
way  in  which  they  arrived  from  different  kitchens ;  but 
the  polite  attention  of  the  Filipino  hosts,  many  of  whom 
acted  as  waiters,  put  the  most  blase  of  Europeans  and 
Americans  on  his  best  behaviour.  One  felt  almost 
ashamed  to  criticise  anything  in  view  of  the  evident 
desire  to  please.  Lucky  is  the  man,  however,  who  is 
not  obliged  to  add  to  his  gastronomic  exertions  the  task 
of  entertaining  a  Filipino  senorita  whose  soul  apparently 
is  in  her  new  embroidered  camisa.  The  table  decora- 
tions are  in  all  climes  a  safe  subject  of  dinner  conversa- 
tion, but  the  unwary  may  be  a  little  taken  aback  if,  on 
addressing  words  of  admiration  to  his  fair  companion, 
concerning  a  small  pyramid  in  front  stuck  all  over 
with  flowers  carved  in  wood  or  made  of  shells  and 
tinsel,  she  forthwith  stretches  out  her  hand,  pulls  out  a 
flower  or  spray,  and  showing  him  that  it  is  attached 
to  a  small  spike  proceeds  to  pick  her  teeth !  As  a 
rule  a  loud  band,  or  rather  several  loud  bands,  accom- 
pany a  Filipino  banquet,  and  although  they  make  the 
task  of  conversation  a  trial  to  the  lungs,  they  certainly 


90  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

fill  the  gaps  in  a  beginner's  Spanish.  After-dinner 
speeches  are  the  rule  —  for  the  Filipino  loves  speech- 
making  next  to  cock-fighting  —  and  these,  while  they 
certainly  compare  favourably  with  those  of  other  climes, 
have  a  poetic  turn  of  phrase,  and  a  grandisonian  elabora- 
tion of  compliment  trying  to  the  nerves  after  a  big  meal 
in  the  middle  of  a  hot  day. 

Such  contrivances,  such  preparations,  such  delight  in 
the  pictorial,  the  spectacular  side  of  things,  are  typical 
of  a  Filipino  town,  and  one  cannot  help  wondering  what 
outlet  the  people  will  find  for  their  love  of  masquerading 
when  the  common-sense  influence  of  America  has  done 
away  with  the  religious  celebrations,  which  have  hitherto 
provided  them  with  excuses  for  indulging  it. 

On  the  whole,  the  balls  and  banquets  leave  —  in  more 
senses  than  one  —  a  curious  flavour  behind.  There  is  a 
good  deal  of  ceremony  and  display  covering  a  very 
meagre  degree  of  refinement.  The  decorations  of  palms, 
ferns,  and  festoons  which  cover  ugly  walls  of  rough, 
painted  wood  seem  symbolical  of  the  lives  of  these 
people,  who  love  dressing  up  and  processions,  and  any 
kind  of  display,  but  live  in  dirt  and  squalor.  The  Fili- 
pino is  notoriously  clean  in  his  dress  and  filthy  in  his 
habitation.  It  is  as  though  he  were  constantly  employed 
in  making  clean  the  outside  of  the  cup  and  platter,  and 
very  much  the  same  is  frequently  true  of  his  mental 
equipment,  though  in  this  matter  we  must  of  course 
make  allowances  for  his  lack  of  opportunities.  He  is 
constantly  "  mimicking  civilisation,"  to  quote  the  arch- 
bishop of  Manila,  and  he  mimics  culture  in  the  same  way. 
The  women  have  less  real  education,  if  possible,  than 
the  men,  and  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  sad  and  amusing 
sight  to  watch  thirty  or  forty  seated  round  a  room,  for 


THE   PHILIPPINES  AND  THE   FILIPINOS  91 

the  most  part  with  faces  devoid  of  expression,  and  with 
a  lack  of  individuality  apparent  in  their  outward  seem- 
ing, which  cannot  but  be  an  index  to  their  undeveloped 
minds.  Nevertheless,  many  witnesses  agree  that  on  the 
whole  the  Filipino  woman  is  superior  in  virtue  and 
industry,  sometimes  even  in  intelligence,  to  her  male 
relatives,  and  her  legal  rights  have  been  most  carefully 
safeguarded,  so  that  the  women  of  no  other  nation  in 
the  East  and  few  in  the  West  have  so  independent  a 
position.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
priests,  to  whose  advantage  it  was  that  the  women  — 
always  more  devout  than  their  husbands  —  should  have 
the  fullest  control  of  funds.  The  women,  therefore, 
have  engaged  in  trade,  have  become  landowners  on  a 
large  scale,  and  have  acquired  a  reputation  for  industry 
and  commercial  activity,  which  is  probably  increased  by 
contrast  with  the  apathy  of  the  men.  Their  reputation 
for  superior  intelligence  is,  no  doubt,  founded  on  their 
quickness  —  a  Filipino  characteristic  heightened  in  the 
female  sex,  which  is  proverbially  rapid  in  acquiring  sur- 
face knowledge.  The  system  of  education  hitherto 
must  have  debarred  any  woman  from  becoming  really 
educated ;  and  those  whose  position  places  them  above 
the  necessity  for  work,  or  who  are  not  engaged  in  any 
business  which  might  give  their  minds  occupation,  must 
find  life  extremely  tedious.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine 
how  the  poor  seiioritas  and  senoras  fill  in  their  days,  for 
their  household  arrangements  are  too  primitive  to  require 
much  active  supervision :  books  they  have  none,  nor  are 
they  expert  at  needlework,  though  some  of  the  embroid- 
ery on  camisas  is  done  by  them.  This  lack  of  all  interest 
in  life  for  the  women  more  than  accounts  for  the  ardour 
with  which  they  embrace  any  opportunity  for  a  fiesta. 


92  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

Education  alone  can  help  them  and  render  them  fit- 
ting wives  and  mothers  for  American  citizens,  but  there 
is  another  side  to  the  question  which  will  have  to  engage 
the  attention  of  the  educational  authorities.  The  phy- 
sique of  the  islanders,  speaking  generally,  is  not  good. 
In  all  the  towns  visited  by  the  writer,  the  contrast 
between  the  sturdy  Americans  and  the  thin,  narrow- 
chested  Filipinos  was  remarkable.  There  may  be  in 
some  of  the  islands  people  who  are  physically  up  to  the 
average  of  the  Malay  race,  but  the  people  seen  in  Luzon, 
Mindanao,  Cebu,  and  Negros  (one  of  the  richest  islands) 
were  certainly  inferior  in  physique  to  the  Javanese,  the 
Malays  of  the  Peninsula,  or  the  Dyaks  of  North  Borneo. 
The  women  in  particular  —  especially  those  of  the  semi- 
educated  classes  met  at  banquets  and  balls,  tricked 
out  in  jewels,  silks,  and  embroideries  —  were  slender, 
narrow-chested,  walking,  as  has  already  been  said,  with  a 
clumsy,  rolling  shuffle.  It  is  to  be  questioned  whether 
they,  or  rather  their  children,  moulded  on  the  same  pat- 
tern, will  be  able  to  stand  the  strain  of  a  thoroughly 
modern  education.  Their  brains,  quick  and  bright, 
though  lacking  depth  and  power  of  retention,  will  be  apt 
to  expand  at  the  expense  of  the  bodies,  unless  improved 
sanitary  conditions,  a  love  of  games,  and  more  generous 
diet  are  introduced  simultaneously  with  education.  Even 
then  it  is  not  to  this  generation  that  we  must  look  for  a 
more  robust  physique. 

No  visit  to  a  Filipino  town  is  complete  without  a  glance 
at  the  schools,  but  as  these  must  be  described  later  on, 
when  the  writer  will  attempt  to  deal  with  the  great  ques- 
tion of  education  in  the  Philippines,  they  must  be  omitted 
here.  The  reader  who  has  been  conducted  in  imagina- 
tion to  a  typical  Filipino  town,  and  shown  the  Filipino 


93 

at  home  in  the  act  of  extending  hospitality  to  his  con- 
querors, must  now  retrace  imaginary  steps  along  the 
palm-fringed  road,  growing  grey  and  dusky  in  the  short, 
tropical  twilight,  while  the  welcome  breeze  for  which 
men  have  been  panting  all  through  the  long  afternoon 
steals  up  and  whispers  among  the  trees,  and  through  the 
slender  bamboo-canes  with  their  pointed  fingers  glows  a 
tropical  sunset  such  as  can  only  be  seen  in  the  Golden 
East.  Far  off  in  the  distance  the  Filipino  band  blares 
out  the  "  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  but  in  the  exquisite 
solemn  beauty  of  the  sunset-hour  all  these  small  human 
affairs  —  this  froglike  effort  to  equal  oxen,  this  matter  of 
wearing  tight  uncomfortable  garments,  and  sitting  in  the 
heat  of  the  day  eating  strange  food  with  perspiration 
streaming  down  one's  back,  while  a  polite  Filipino 
knocks  the  flies  away  with  whisks  made  from  newspaper, 
and  improvised  punkahs  (also  of  paper)  flap  above  one's 
head  —  all  this  disappears  like  a  dream,  and  we  only 
know  how  beautiful  are  these  islands,  how  radiant  the 
skies  above  them.  The  Psalmist  felt  the  whole  thing, 
and  said  in  words  for  all  time :  "  The  earth  is  the  Lord's 
and  the  fulness  thereof." 


A    FILIPINO   WAKE 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    UNITED    STATES    IN    THE    PHILIPPINES 

FINDING  themselves  in  the  somewhat  embarrassing 
position  of  inheriting  from  the  conquered  Spaniards  the 
animosity  of  the  Filipinos,  the  people  of  the  United 
States  had  only  two  courses  open  to  them.  They  could 
quit  the  islands,  leaving  them  in  worse  disorder  than 
they  had  found,  or  they  could  go  on  fighting.  They 
chose  the  latter  course,  the  only  one  really  open  to  a 
proud  and  civilised  nation,  but  it  was  natural  that  a 
considerable  confusion  of  ideas  should  prevail  on  both 
sides  of  the  Pacific  as  to  what  she  was  actually  fighting 
for.  The  writer  had  it  from  one  of  the  men  who  directed 
that  fighting  that  it  took  him  a  whole  year  to  see  his 
way  plain.  "  We  went  into  this  affair  without  any 
ideas,"  he  said,  "  and  we've  had  to  hammer  them  out, 
but  now  we've  got  them  we  must  stick  to  them."  Few 
Americans  expected  the  war  to  be  of  such  duration,  and 

94 


THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES          95 

before  the  year  1901  Britons  were  rather  inclined  to  twit 
their  transatlantic  cousins  about  the  two  years'  war  with 
a  few  Filipinos.  The  circumstances  were  such,  however, 
that  the  time  occupied  in  subduing  the  Archipelago, 
which  is  hardly  yet  conquered,  was  by  no  means  extraor- 
dinary. The  difficulty  of  communications  was  more 
formidable  than  can  be  imagined  by  any  one  who  has  not 
seen  the  islands,  with  their  irregular  coasts,  lack  of  har- 
bours, frequent  mountain  chains,  and  roadless  condition. 
The  Spaniards  did  very  little  to  promote  intercourse, 
since  in  the  disintegration  of  the  Malay  tribes  lay  their 
safeguard,  and  the  tribes  themselves  lived  completely  apart 
from  each  other  except  when  at  war.  The  stormy  seas 
that  wash  the  Archipelago  made  inter-island  communica- 
tion difficult.  As  an  instance  of  this  it  is  related  that 
on  one  occasion  a  Governor  and  his  party,  desiring  to 
visit  a  portion  of  his  dominions  in  the  islands  north  of 
Luzon,  were  shipwrecked  on  a  small  and  almost  barren 
island,  where  they  were  forced  to  subsist  on  fish  and 
drink  the  rain-water  found  in  crevices  of  the  rocks. 
Here  they  remained  for  a  whole  year,  before  being 
rescued  by  a  relief  party,  but  many  died,  and  others 
contracted  incurable  illnesses.  The  only  method  by 
which  the  scattered  and  often  unexplored  islands  could 
be  effectively  patrolled  is  by  a  large  fleet  of  shallow- 
draught  gunboats,  and  lacking  these  the  Americans 
deserve  much  credit  for  the  way  in  which  their  local 
transport  service  was  organised. 

The  writer  in  giving  his  impressions  of  the  American 
army  in  the  Philippines  is  relying  solely  on  what  he  saw 
and  heard  at  first  hand.  Notwithstanding  the  reports  as 
to  the  decimation  of  regiments  by  fever,  and  other  state- 
ments of  a  like  character,  he  was  much  struck  with  the 


96  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

healthy,  sturdy  appearance  of  the  men  at  the  numerous 
posts  in  all  the  islands.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  how- 
ever, these  were  regiments  which  had  become  acclima- 
tised, and  there  is  no  doubt  that  at  first  many  of  the 
troops,  largely  composed  of  raw  recruits,  suffered  severely 
not  only  from  fever  but  sunstroke.  Though  in  the 
United  States  many  people  are  accustomed  to  almost 
tropical  heat  in  the  summer,  they  take  a  long  time  to 
realise  the  difference  between  that  and  the  real  tropics, 
and  both  in  diet  and  clothing  they  are  slow  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  new  conditions.  An  example  of  this 
is  the  non-use  of  the  sola  topee.  The  English  man  or 
woman  feels  that  life  itself  depends  on  that  headgear 
in  the  tropics.  In  the  Philippines,  to  wear  one  stamps 
a  man  at  once  as  a  Briton,  and  the  ladies  have  adopted 
the  dangerous  habit  of  their  sisters  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  of  going  without  any  headgear  at  all.  But  Dutch 
ladies  never  venture  abroad  when  the  sun  is  up.  When 
sola  topees  were  provided  for  certain  of  the  troops,  they 
refused  to  wear  them,  and  a  consignment  of  some  thou- 
sands is  now  rotting  in  a  godown  in  Manila.  On  the 
whole  the  writer  was  most  favourably  impressed  with  the 
physique  of  the  United  States  soldiers  in  the  Philippines, 
and  the  Manila  police,  a  body  recruited  from  the  pick 
of  all  the  Volunteer  regiments,  is  physically  qne  of  the 
finest  corps  of  men  in  the  world. 

Of  the  United  States  officers  it  is  somewhat  more 
difficult  to  speak.  The  Volunteer  regiments,  recruited 
in  a  violent  hurry,  attracted  all  sorts  of  men,  and  faults 
which  are  unimportant  in  a  private  become  noticeable 
in  a  man  who  is  an  officer  and  presumably  a  gentleman. 
Most  of  the  commissions  were  got  by  interest,  the  friend 
or  relative  of  a  Senator  had  a  better  chance  than  the 


THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES 


97 


best  all-round  shot  and  rider,  and  with  this  mixed  Volun- 
teer element  the  United  States  army  has  certainly  lost 
in  the  general  standard  of  its  officers.  Much  heart- 
burning has  been  inevitably  caused  by  the  promotion  of 
Volunteer  officers  over  the  heads  of  those  who  have 
served  a  long  apprenticeship  to  their  profession,  and  this 
is  a  real  grievance,  for  the  West  Point  graduate  is  well 


IUOROTTKS 


trained  and  educated,  besides  possessing  courage  and 
dash,  while  the  Volunteer  officer,  brave  and  dashing,  too 
frequently  lacks  even  the  education  and  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  a  true  leader  of  men.  We  have  realised  bitterly 
in  South  Africa  the  result  of  relying  entirely  upon  courage 
and  daring ;  the  future  wars  of  the  world  will  be  waged 
with  brains,  and  brains  must  be  trained,  else  they  too 
often  lie  fallow  or  go  to  seed. 


98  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

The  war  in  the  Philippines  must  have  done  a  great 
deal  to  develop  in  all  officers  that  most  important  qual- 
ity, self-reliance,  for  with  the  defective  communications, 
junior  officers  and  their  companies  were  often  isolated 
for  months  from  their  headquarters  and  had  to  steer 
their  own  way  as  best  they  could.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  they  rose  to  the  occasion,  and  the  greatest  credit 
is  due  to  them  for  the  manner  in  which  they  adapted 
themselves  to  circumstances.  The  commissariat  de- 
partment in  particular  managed  extremely  well  under 
circumstances  of  peculiar  difficulty,  and  kept  the  most 
distant  outposts  supplied  with  the  necessities  of  life, 
while  the  more  accessible  had  even  some  of  the  luxuries, 
including  plentiful  supplies  of  ice.  It  fell  to  the  lot  of 
men  unlearned  in  all  such  matters  to  take  over  the 
administration  of  towns  and  provinces,  arrange  munici- 
pal and  other  affairs,  see  to  the  finances  and  education, 
and  all  the  while  carry  on  military  operations  against  an 
elusive  enemy.  These  military  governments  have  fre- 
quently been  crowned  with  much  success,  though  the 
writer  is  inclined  to  think,  judging  from  the  improvement 
latterly  effected  in  one  or  two  places,  that  more  might 
have  been  accomplished  in  others.  The  average  United 
States  officer  is  too  much  inclined  to  despise  ceremony, 
to  accept  things  as  they  are,  to  put  up  with  indifferent 
quarters  and  inferior  service.  That  is  not  the  way  to 
impress  an  Oriental  race  who  are  perfectly  aware  that 
Western  standards  of  comfort  and  decency  are  different 
to  their  own.  The  same  criticism  applies  to  the 
accommodation  provided  for  privates.  The  writer  is 
not  an  advocate  for  pampering  troops,  nor  for  mobile 
columns  which  carry  pianos  and  canteen  kitchens,  but 
in  many  of  the  posts  he  visited  the  United  States  troops 


THE  UNITED   STATES  IN  THE   PHILIPPINES          99 

had  been  quartered  for  many  months,  righting  was  prac- 
tically over,  and  yet  the  men  were  miserably  housed. 
They  ate  their  meals  in  wretched  huts  or  canvas  shacks, 
slept  apparently  anyhow  or  anywhere,  and  owing  to  there 
being  no  regimental  canteens  spent  their  spare  time  in 
the  small  native  drink  shops.  No  amusements  appeared 
to  be  organised  for  them,  and  the  sub-lieutenants,  who 
in  British  India  spend  hours  "  sweating,"  as  they  express 
it,  to  get  up  cricket,  football,  concerts,  theatricals,  and 
other  distractions  for  Tommy,  were  themselves  re- 
duced to  continual  card-playing.  The  writer  uses  the 
past  tense,  since  he  is  speaking  of  the  summer  of  1901 ; 
but  the  criticism,  meant  in  no  carping  spirit,  is  one  that 
the  United  States  merit  generally,  and  not  only  in  these 
instances.  They  have  splendid  fighting  material,  but 
have  hitherto  been  rather  inclined  to  waste  it,  and  if  the 
army  is  to  be  made  a  popular  profession  and  is  to  attract 
the  best  men,  attention  must  be  paid  to  that  side  of  the 
service  which  keeps  them  in  good  health  and  spirits. 
The  United  States  have  decided  that  they  now  need  a 
standing  army  of  100,000  men,  but  they  hardly  realise 
for  how  long  a  period  it  may  be  necessary  to  garrison 
the  Philippines  with  a  large  force,  and  nothing  is  so 
detrimental  to  good  work  as  the  feeling  that  it  is  only  a 
temporary  expedient.  It  would  have  been  far  better, 
too,  for  the  Filipinos  to  realise  from  the  first  that  the 
Americans  had  come  to  stay,  and  nothing  would  have 
brought  this  home  to  them  better  than  such  measures  as 
the  provision  of  decent  quarters  for  officers  and  men. 

The  military  operations  in  the  Philippines  may  be 
divided  broadly  into  three  periods.  First,  in  August 
1898,  some  twenty  thousand  troops  were  sent  out.  As 
these  proved  insufficient,  and  the  rebellion  continued 


ioo  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

to  spread,  further  detachments  were  sent,  bringing  the 
total  up  to  thirty-five  thousand.  It  was  at  this  juncture 
that  the  campaign  may  be  said  to  have  seriously  begun, 
and  thenceforward,  until  the  spring  of  1900,  more  troops 
were  gradually  introduced,  bringing  the  total  up  to  over 
sixty  thousand.  Of  these  some  forty  thousand  were 
engaged  in  the  Island  of  Luzon  and  the  remainder 
scattered  throughout  the  Archipelago.  In  round  num- 
bers this  total  was  composed  of  eighteen  battalions  of 
Regulars,  twenty-four  regiments  of  Volunteers,  several 
batteries  of  Artillery,  and  half  a  dozen  regiments  of  Cav- 
alry, of  which  one  was  coloured.  These  figures,  of  course, 
are  merely  approximate.  In  1900  the  Volunteers 
were  sent  home,  and  replaced  where  necessary  by 
Regulars  enlisted  under  the  new  army  bill.  Many  of 
the  Volunteer  officers  have,  of  course,  obtained  regular 
commissions,  and  others  remained  in  the  islands  to  take 
up  civil  appointments.  Altogether,  owing  to  sickness, 
casualties,  and  retirement,  only  sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
Volunteers  returned  to  the  States. 

Since  the  writer's  visit  to  the  Philippines  the  Ameri- 
cans have  suffered  more  than  one  check,  and  this  pre- 
supposes a  revival  on  the  part  of  the  insurgents,  but  too 
much  importance  need  not  be  attached  to  isolated  in- 
cidents of  this  kind,  which  are  inevitable  under  the 
circumstances,  though  they  have  no  doubt  been  partially 
due  to  overconfidence  on  the  part  of  the  Americans. 
Brigandage  has  been  so  long  unchecked  and  is  so 
deeply  rooted  in  the  country  that  for  a  considerable 
period  a  condition  of  affairs  must  prevail  in  certain 
islands  resembling  that  in  Upper  Burma  in  the  dacoit 
days.  One  of  the  difficulties  to  be  met  is  the  diversity 
of  language  among  the  natives  —  not  two  per  cent,  know 


THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES        101 

Spanish  even  indifferently  —  which  makes  it  imperative 
that,  when  the  native  regiments  and  police  are  formed, 
officers  should  be  carefully  selected  and  have  a  know- 
ledge of  local  dialects. 

The  portion  of  this  campaign  which  received  least 
attention,  either  in  Europe  or  the  United  States, 
though  it  has  been  the  most  difficult  and  dangerous  to 
deal  with,  is  the  guerilla  warfare  instituted  by  Agui- 
naldo  in  November  1899.  The  tactics  then  adopted 
were  similar  to  those  employed  in  other  countries  with 
like  conditions — to  cut  off  convoys,  destroy  communi- 
cations, crush  columns,  and  generally  to  worry  the 
enemy  without  exposing  oneself.  But  the  Filipino 
added  a  fresh  principle  —  to  exterminate  traitors  —  "  to 
prevent  the  Filipinos  from  vilely  selling  themselves  for 
the  invader's  gold  "  was  the  euphemism  employed.  They 
were  to  be  unceasingly  active  and  daring,  and  thus  make 
up  for  their  lack  of  numbers,  to  hide  in  the  woods,  fall 
on  the  enemy  whenever  chance  occurred,  and  then  dis- 
appear at  once.  The  beautiful  islands  of  the  Archipelago 
are  exceptionally  adapted  to  such  a  plan  of  campaign. 
Jungles,  woods,  canons,  ravines,  mountains,  passes,  gullies, 
dense  cocoa-tree  groves,  and  thickly  fenced  villages  — 
all  these  offer  ample  cover  to  the  sharpshooter.  And 
when  one  remembers  the  unknown  character  of  the 
country  to  all  save  the  natives  and  perhaps  the  Spanish 
priests  whom  they  had  either  killed  or  driven  away, 
and  the  practically  unsurveyed  coasts  which  surround 
the  islands,  we  can  only  wonder  that  the  Filipinos  have 
not  made  an  even  more  effective  stand. 

The  enrolling  of  native  regiments  and  police  is  a 
matter  of  the  highest  importance,  as  they  will,  under 
American  officers,  be  the  best  means  of  suppressing 


IO2 


THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 


brigandage.  The  martial  career  is  one  that  appeals 
strongly  to  the  Filipino,  especially  if  accompanied  by 
a  smart  uniform;  and  he  is  by  no  means  a  contempti- 
ble fighter,  as  was  shown  by  the  Macabebes,  who  joined 
the  United  States  soon  after  the  insurrection  broke  out 
and  did  valuable  service  as  scouts.  The  police  force, 
however,  will  have  to  be  most  carefully  officered  and 
supervised  to  prevent  abuses  such  as  characterised  the 


STREET    SCENE,    CEBU 

guardia  civil,  and  the  native  regiments  will  need  the 
same  precaution  to  guarantee  their  loyalty.  The  crying 
necessity  is  for  American  officers  who  can  speak  Spanish, 
Tagalog,  and  Visayan,  and  steps  should  be  taken  by 
means  of  rewards  to  ensure  a  large  body  of  men  so 
qualified. 

The  writer  does  not  intend  to  attempt  any  criticism 
of  the  actual  war  operations  in  the  Philippines.  Under 
the  peculiar  circumstances  he  considers,  despite  a  some- 
what general  opinion  among  Britons  that  the  Americans 


THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES        103 

made  "  rather  a  hash  of  things,"  that  the  troops,  both 
officers  and  rank  and  file,  did  wonderfully  well.  A 
protest  must,  however,  be  entered  against  the  employ- 
ment of  coloured  regiments  against  the  Filipinos.  With- 
out adopting  the  view  that  the  negro  is  incapable  of 
behaving  like  a  white  of  average  character,  it  must  be 
acknowledged  that  since  the  emancipation  a  very  large 
number  of  coloured  men  have  drifted  into  the  cities,  where, 
owing  to  temperament  and  lack  of  training,  they  have 
not  been  able  to  resist  temptations  of  all  kinds,  and  have 
become  debased  and  brutalised.  From  the  scourings 
of  these  cities  the  black  regiments  are  frequently  re- 
cruited, and  despite  the  discipline  enforced  it  has  been 
a  great  mistake  to  introduce  this  element  into  the 
Philippines.  The  ethical  question  of  pitting  blacks 
against  whites  is  a  complicated  one  here ;  for  the  Filipinos 
are  neither  white  nor  black,  nor  even  pure  brown.  In 
this  respect  it  would  have  been  better  and  more  con- 
sistent if  the  United  States  had  regarded  them  as  white 
men  by  reason  of  their  Christianity  and  civilisation. 
The  employment  of  Hindoo  troops  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  cannot  be  taken  as  a  similar  instance,  for  the 
Hindoo  is  of  a  far  higher  race  than  the  negro.  As  a 
race  the  negroes  have  not  risen,  and  the  class  from 
which  the  regiments  are  recruited  is  not  the  best. 

Now  let  us  take  a  glance  at  Manila. 

Before  the  United  States  came  to  the  Philippines, 
Manila  was  a  straggling,  sleepy  town,  with  pretty,  shady 
suburbs  and  a  general  air  of  manana  about  its  quiet 
streets  and  the  Deserted  wharves  along  the  river.  Now 
it  is  full  of  stir  and  bustle.  Hundreds  of  carromatas, 
quilas,  and  victorias  rattle  over  the  roughly  paved  streets, 
flaring  placards  flaunt  above  the  shops,  little  huts  have 


io4  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

been  transformed  into  ice-cream  saloons  and  advertise 
their  wares  in  banners  which  spread  across  the  road,  ice- 
cold  beer  is  announced  in  foot-high  letters  outside  the 
drinking  shops  where  Spaniards  used  to  sip  their  sour 
claret.  The  whole  place  is  pervaded  with  the  pushing, 
bustling  spirit  of  the  New  World. 

The  walled  city  was  the  nucleus  of  Manila,  and  as 
this  is  now  merely  an  official  and  residential  quarter,  it 
retains  a  certain  amount  of  its  Old  World  dignity.  Num- 
berless large  churches  raise  their  towers  above  the  low 
white  houses,  the  wide  open  space  before  the  cathedral 
is  empty  in  the  sunshine,  while  the  sentries  before  the 
Governor's  palace  hard  by  —  the  palazio  of  former  days 
—  blink  at  the  blinding  light.  This  is  not  the  residential 
palace,  but  the  official  headquarters,  once  bare  and  quiet 
and  stately,  with  its  broad  marble  staircase,  great  empty 
rooms  with  high-backed  chairs  and  oil  paintings  of  dead 
and  gone  governors.  Now  the  numerous  staff  of  the 
United  States  Government  have  their  offices  here.  The 
big  rooms  have  been  partitioned  off,  the  click  of  the  type- 
writer is  heard  continually,  and  busy  men  in  dusty  boots 
and  soiled  khaki  are  forever  dashing  up  and  down  the 
marble  staircase. 

In  Spanish  times  the  British  —  or  more  correctly  the 
Scotch  —  colony,  which  included  a  good  many  merchants, 
the  officials  and  engineers  of  the  railway  (the  only  one 
in  the  islands),  and  the  personnel  of  the  two  principal 
banks  was  almost  the  only  foreign  element  in  Manila  and 
lived  quietly  and  peaceably.  House-rent,  food,  and  ser- 
vants were  cheap,  and  the  society,  though  slow,  was  friendly 
and  agreeable.  Every  one  knew  every  one,  and  the  best 
of  the  Spanish  and  Filipino  society  was  open  to  the 
strangers.  A  charming  tennis  court  provided  exercise, 


and  recreation  was  found  in  riding,  driving,  occasional 
picnics,  and  musical  evenings.  But  at  one  bound  Manila 
ceased  to  be  a  quiet,  provincial  town  and  became  a  me- 
tropolis. Now  everything  is  changed.  House-rent  is 
exorbitant,  servants  are  hardly  to  be  had  and  cost  twice 
as  much  as  in  Singapore  or  Shanghai.  Food  is  dear, 
though  more  variety  has  been  introduced  and  a  large 
cold  storage  established,  which  will  prove  a  great  boon. 
Fruit  and  vegetables,  however,  are  treble  the  price  they 
used  to  be  owing  to  the  increased  demand.  Society,  if 
more  varied,  is  less  select,  and  the  city  has  become  a  huge 
caravanserai  for  travelling  Americans;  for  women  who 
come  to  visit  their  men  friends  or  relations,  for  wives, 
daughters,  cousins,  and  aunts  of  soldiers,  for  men  on  the 
lookout  for  a  job,  and  in  fact  for  all  the  miscellaneous 
crowd  of  birds  of  passage  who  flock  to  a  new  place  under 
similar  circumstances.  The  garrison  element  is,  of  course, 
predominant.  As  a  lady  expressed  it,  "  One  meets  all 
one's  friends  from  the  States ! " 

The  whole  affair  assumes  the  proportion  of  a  huge  pic- 
nic, and  over  all  the  American  belle,  with  her  piquancy, 
her  unconventionality,  her  charming  frocks,  her  high- 
pitched  voice,  and  general  oblivion  of  everything  but  her 
own  amusement  and  comfort,  reigns  supreme.  Drives 
on  the  Lunetta,  shopping  in  the  Escolta,  visits  to  the 
convents,  luncheon  parties,  dinners  at  the  Naval  Club  or 
one  of  the  (extremely  bad)  restaurants ;  dances,  picnics, 
boating  parties  up  the  Pasig,  launch  parties  in  the  bay  — 
all  these  fill  up  the  day  and  apparently  compensate  for 
the  uncomfortable  quarters  many  have  to  endure,  for  the 
hotels  are  the  worst  in  the  world  and  no  English  woman 
would  live  six  weeks  in  one.  When  the  hot  weather  gives 
way  to  the  steady  steaming  rains  a  rush  is  made  for  Hong 


io6  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Kong  or  Japan,  and  the  husbands,  fathers,  and  uncles  get 
on  as  best  they  can. 

Such  was  Manila  when  the  war  was  just  coming  to  an 
end  and  the  floodgates  were  open.  By  and  by,  especially 
when  Civil  Government  has  been  established,  things 
will  settle  down  and  Manila  will  become  more  normal. 
Houses  must  be  built,  the  question  of  supplies  faced  (at 
present  it  is  cheaper  to  write  to  Hong  Kong  for  the  small- 
est thing  than  to  buy  it  in  the  local  shops),  and  other 
improvements  made.  Unless  Chinese  immigration  is 
permitted  the  servant  question  will  continue  a  problem, 
for  with  the  increase  of  work  all  round,  and  especially 
the  demand  for  men  for  native  regiments  and  police,  the 
Filipinos  will  look  more  and  more  askance  on  domestic 
service.  The  advent  of  Americans  in  the  East  has  had 
an  extraordinary  effect  in  raising  prices  everywhere,  but 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  it  may  lead  to  correspond- 
ing advantages  in  increased  trade  and  therefore  renewed 
prosperity. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  picturesque  Manila  is  rapidly 
disappearing,  and  already  the  suburbs  and  surrounding 
country  are  defaced  with  posters.  The  terrible  earth- 
quakes which  from  time  to  time  have  laid  great  portions 
of  the  city  in  ruins  have  hitherto  prevented  any  style 
of  architecture  more  ambitious  than  low  square  stone 
buildings,  or  flimsy  wooden  ones  on  foundations  of 
brick.  The  cathedral,  rent  literally  asunder  by  the  last 
earthquake,  has  been  rebuilt  and  is  a  spacious  if  some- 
what tawdry  building.  Of  the  hundred  other  churches 
found  within  the  walled  city  that  of  the  Jesuits  is  the 
handsomest  and  most  interesting,  being  entirely  deco- 
rated inside  with  elaborate  wood  carvings  done  by  Fili- 
pinos from  the  priests'  own  designs.  Several  fine  paint- 


THE    UNITED    STATES   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES        107 

ings  adorn  the  altar-pieces  and  walls,  and  the  organ  is  a 
good  one.  Manila  is  singularly  devoid  of  "  lions."  When 
one  has  seen  a  few  of  the  churches,  the  Jesuit  college  and 
observatory,  the  cemetery,  and  has  driven  out  to  inspect 
a  ruined  fort  or  two,  there 
is  little  left  in  the  way  of 
actual  sight-seeing.  It  is 
interesting,  however,  to 
stroll  through  the  narrow 
Spanish-looking  streets  of 
the  walled  city,  with  their 
white  houses  and  barred 
windows,  and  one  comes 
across  quaint  corners,  un- 
expected glimpses  through 
open  courtyards,  and  little 
genre  pictures  that  stay 
in  the  memory.  Walking 

thus     in     a    sunny    little          v.T  Wf  W/ 

square,  where  a  few  palms 

A   SKETCH   IN  THE  WALLED   CITY 

throw  their  shadows  across 

the  grass,  and  the  sun  beats  blindly  on  the  bare  white 
walls  of  a  long  low  building  on  one  side,  while  in  the 
deep  cool  shade  of  the  other  a  brown-limbed  boy  is 
sleeping  and  a  lean  dog  lies  on  guard,  we  are  fascinated 
by  the  inky  depths  of  shade  beneath  a  little  arched  door. 
Peeping  in,  we  see  beyond  a  sunny  patio  full  of  palms 
and  flowers,  where  a  little  fountain  trickles.  It  is  the 
ideal  place  for  Spanish  lovers,  and  we  look  around,  ex- 
pecting to  see  the  folds  of  a  black  mantilla  and  to  hear 
the  tinkle  of  a  guitar.  But  no  !  a  figure  advances ;  it  is 
an  old  man  in  brown  cowl  and  gown,  with  snowy  beard 
and  kindly  smile.  We  apologise  lamely  for  our  intru- 


io8  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

sion,  but  he  is  far  from  angry,  thinking,  of  course,  we 
have  come  to  see  the  chapel.  He  pushes  open  a  heavy 
door,  and  we  enter  a  low,  dark,  close-smelling  chamber 
fitted  like  a  chapel.  Tawdry  and  tarnished  are  its  hang- 
ings, crude  and  ugly  the  paintings  on  its  walls.  The  old 
man  smiles  and  shows  them  with  simple  pride.  We 
stumble  out  again  into  the  air  and  sunshine  and  leave 
him  bowing  courteously  among  his  flowers.  The  ragged 
Filipino  boy  across  the  way  wakes  up  and  stares  at  us, 
as  we  pass  moralising  on  what  we  have  seen. 

Of  all  the  sights  of  Manila  the  cemetery  is  perhaps 
the  most  unique  and  gruesome.  Imagine  a  circus  with 
two  walls,  an  inner  and  an  outer,  each  some  six  feet 
thick.  These  walls  are  honeycombed  with  holes,  just 
large  enough  to  take  a  coffin,  and  these  holes,  the  last 
resting-place  of  the  poor  clay  that  once  was  man,  are 
leased  for  five  years.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  unless  a 
fresh  lease  be  taken,  the  coffin  is  brought  out  and  the 
bones  thrown  on  a  heap  at  the  back  of  the  cemetery, 
where  is  a  perfect  Golgotha.  One  cannot  help  wonder- 
ing what  the  Chinese  think  of  this  way  of  treating  the 
bones  of  one's  ancestors. 

Of  the  climate  of  the  Philippines  it  is  difficult  to  form 
a  very  accurate  estimate.  Manila  is  probably  the  hot- 
test place  in  the  Archipelago,  and  in  April,  May,  and 
June  it  is  extremely  trying.  And  yet  there  is  almost 
always  a  breeze  from  certain  quarters,  and,  if  the 
houses  were  built  so  as  to  catch  whatever  wind  there  is, 
the  heat  would  be  tolerable  even  in  the  hottest  months. 
One  misses  in  Manila  houses  the  wide  and  shaded 
verandahs  all  round,  the  careful  arrangement  of  doors  so 
that  the  air  can  sweep  right  through,  the  cool  stone 
floors  and  elaborate  sun-screens  with  which  Europeans 


THE  UNITED   STATES  IN  THE   PHILIPPINES        109 

usually  mitigate  the  heat  in  the  tropics.  There  are  cool 
and  convenient  houses  in  Manila,  but  too  many  are  built 
in  the  stiff  Spanish  way,  and,  besides,  during  the  torna- 
does the  whole  house  must  be  capable  of  being  tightly 
closed,  a  fact  which  rather  precludes  open  verandahs. 
The  rainy  season,  lasting  from  about  June  to  September, 
is  the  most  trying  time  in  Manila,  but  from  September 
to  April  the  climate  is  very  agreeable,  hot  but  not  op- 
pressive, with  pleasant  evenings  and  cool  nights.  The 
complexions  of  Europeans  do  not  suffer  as  in  Singapore, 
and  both  men  and  women  show  a  pleasant  freshness  of 
hue,  albeit  they  get  sunburnt.  In  Spanish  days  epi- 
demics were  the  great  curse  of  Manila,  and  the  lack  of 
proper  precautions  allowed  small-pox  and  even  plague  to 
sweep  through  the  city.  An  English  lady  told  the  writer 
that  she  had  seen  a  funeral  returning  from  the  cemetery 
after  the  burial  of  a  small-pox  patient,  with  the  coffin 
shell  (which  had  not  been  left  with  the  body  on  account 
of  the  scarceness  of  coffins  at  that  time)  still  in  the  cart, 
the  mourners  sitting  on  the  sides,  with  their  feet  in- 
side, as  they  discussed  the  details  of  the  ceremony 
at  which  they  had  just  assisted,  or  the  virtues  of  the 
deceased !  Improved  sanitary  laws  are  the  first  of  the 
benefits  to  be  bestowed  by  the  United  States  on  Manila, 
and  they  are  badly  needed.  The  same  applies  to  all 
other  towns  in  the  Archipelago,  for  insanitation  is  one 
of  the  causes  of  the  fever  which  told  so  heavily  on  the 
troops.  Throughout  the  islands  the  soldiers  had  little 
complaint  to  make  of  the  climate.  Exposed  to  so 
much  sea-breeze  and  with  a  plentiful  rainfall,  the  Phil- 
ippines will  become  even  more  healthful  when  drainage 
and  other  schemes  have  been  set  on  foot  and  proper 
water  supplies  secured.  At  the  same  time  the  extreme 


no  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

heat  during  a  great  portion  of  the  year  precludes  the 
idea  that  it  can  ever  be  a  field  for  white  labour.  It  is 
a  tropical  country  and  no  effort  has  yet  sufficed  to  ren- 
der such  a  region  a  dwelling-place  and  sphere  of  manual 
labour  for  white  men.  It  might  even  be  possible  for 
white  men  and  women  to  bring  up  their  children  there, 
but  in  the  third  or  at  most  the  fourth  generation  they 
would  die  out.  Here,  as  in  other  tropical  countries,  the 
European  must  oversee,  direct,  and  organise.  He  can- 
not labour,  and  he  cannot  people  as  in  a  white  man's 
country. 

If  the  Chinese  immigration  question  is  a  burning  one 
on  the  farther  side  of  the  Pacific,  how  much  more  so 
here,  in  close  proximity  to  China  itself,  and  in  a  country 
which  has  for  years  been  an  open  and  profitable  sphere 
to  the  indomitable  John?  The  number  of  Chinese  now 
in  the  islands  can  with  difficulty  be  estimated.  Many 
of  them  are  Christians  and  go  by  Spanish  names, 
while  Chinese  mestizos  are  even  more  numerous,  and 
include  some  of  the  richest  and  most  influential  men  in 
the  land.  The  difficult  point  for  decision,  however,  is 
whether  or  no  the  United  States  can  carry  out  their 
schemes  for  improvements  —  their  public  works,  roads, 
railways,  bridges,  schools,  and  many  other  important 
undertakings  —  without  employing  Chinese  labour. 
There  are  plenty  of  Filipinos  in  the  islands,  but  can 
they  and  will  they  do  the  work  ?  Experts  disagree  as  to 
their  ability.  As  far  as  technical  skill  goes  there  is  no 
question,  but  the  writer  is  inclined  to  think  that  the 
physique  of  the  Filipino  alone  would  prevent  him  from 
working  laboriously  for  any  long  stretch,  and  that  this  is 
partly  the  reason  for  his  apparent  dislike  of  work.  Only 
partly,  however,  since  laziness  has  its  roots  deep  in  the 


THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES        in 


Malay  character,  and  the  Spaniards  who  despised  labour 
themselves  did  nothing  to  instil  an  idea  of  its  nobility 
into  their  imitative  pupils.  One  soon  gets  accustomed 
in  the  Philippines  to  see  four  Filipinos  dragging  at  a 
weight  which  one  Chinaman 
would  shoulder  and  trot  off 
with,  and  the  testimony  of 
labour  employers  is  all  in 
favour  of  Chinese  labour. 
With  Filipinos  they  are 
never  sure.  Feast  days 
and  fiestas  must  be  re- 
spected, and  the  work  gets 
behind,  but  even  if  due  al- 
lowance be  made  for  this,  the 
whole  calculations  may.be 
upset  because  half  the  men 
decide  to  take  a  holiday! 
Having  earned  enough  for 
the  next  week  they  see  no 
necessity  for  more  work  until  that  is  spent.  The  writer 
heard  of  a  case  in  which  a  contractor,  having  increased  the 
wages  to  twice  the  usual  amount  in  order  to  get  plenty  of 
men,  discovered  that  they  would  only  work  half  the  week, 
since  by  so  doing  they  earned  the  same  sum  which  they 
had  originally  got  in  a  whole  week.  No  such  contretemps 
would  ever  occur  with  Chinese.  Having  once  been  en- 
gaged, and  given  to  understand  that  the  work  must  be 
finished  in  a  certain  time,  the  contractor  could  be  sure 
that  they  would  work  every  hour,  and  could  safely  calcu- 
late the  time  they  would  take.  At  the  same  time  a  fresh 
influx  of  Chinese,  such  as  (unless  restricted)  would  in- 
evitably take  place  with  the  new  conditions  introduced 


COMING   FROM   CHURCH 


ii2  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

by  the  United  States,  would  be  fatal  to  the  Filipino. 
His  clever,  industrious  rival  would  swamp  him,  and  de- 
prive him  of  the  advantages  the  United  States  desire 
him  to  reap  from  their  administration.  The  Filipino 
objects  to  the  Chinese  on  the  ground  that  he  is  a  great 
drain  on  the  country,  for  he  remits  the  major  part  of  his 
earnings  to  China,  while  by  means  of  his  close  co-opera- 
tion and  powerful  trade  guilds  he  drives  every  native 
out  of  the  retail  business.  The  Spaniards  were  aware 
of  the  dangers  of  Chinese  immigration,  but  in  their  time 
John  gained  admittance  as  a  coolie.  Once  arrived  he 
soon  saved  a  few  dollars,  started  a  peddler's  pack,  and  in 
an  incredibly  short  time  had  his  own  shop  and  frequently 
became  a  prosperous  merchant  As  citizens  the  great 
objections  to  the  Chinese  are  their  hatred  of  sanitation, 
addiction  to  opium,  and  their  system  of  clubs  and  secret 
societies  which  make  them  undesirably  powerful.  Those 
who  can  afford  it  almost  invariably  marry  native  women, 
who,  far  from  objecting  to  a  yellow  husband,  are  aware 
that  he  will  treat  them  well  and  not  expect  them  to  sup- 
port him,  as  is  too  often  the  way  with  Malays.  The 
Chinese  half-breed,  as  has  been  said  already,  is  a  dangerous 
person  — bright,  restless,  intriguing,  and  untrustworthy  — 
and  the  rapid  growth  of  this  class  would  raise  a  very  serious 
difficulty.  This  is  briefly  the  case  against  the  Chinaman, 
but  the  crux  of  the  argument  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
Filipinos  must  be  protected  from  their  stronger  and  more 
persevering  neighbours.  Probably  a  compromise  by 
which  Chinese  labourers  can  be  admitted  on  time  con- 
tracts, would  best  meet  the  difficulty,  but  every  effort 
should  be  made,  as  in  Java,  to  prevent  them  from  pene- 
trating to  the  country  districts,  except  as  coolies  on  the 
large  haciendas.  To  exclude  them  altogether  will  cer- 


THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   THE    PHILIPPINES        113 

tainly  retard  the  development  of  the  Philippines  and 
consequently  that  more  important  object,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Filipinos. 

Of  the  resources  of  the  Archipelago,  it  is  difficult  to 
speak  with  accuracy,  since  the  natural  riches  have  never 
been  scientifically  examined,  and  the  trade  returns  are 
neither  clear  nor  very  reliable. 

An  examination  of  the  trade  returns  for  1900  only,  or 
indeed  for  the  last  few  years,  would  be  misleading,  on 
account  of  the  dislocation  due  to  rebellion  and  war,  and  a 
scrutiny  of  the  returns  for  the  ten  years  prior  to  1897  ig 
now  of  little  value. 

The  share  of  Britain  is  not,  however,  so  great  as 
might  seem  at  first  sight  from  the  figures,  for  the  large 
amount  passing  through  Hong  Kong  and  Singapore  as 
centres  of  distribution  must  not  all  be  set  down  to  her 
credit,  but  it  is  the  largest,  and  may  be  calculated  at  well 
over  one-half  the  total.  It  is  noticeable  that  British 
imports  have  decreased  greatly,  while  those  of  other 
countries,  especially  of  the  United  States  and  Germany, 
have  increased.  The  German  proportion  is  consider- 
ably more  than  is  apparent,  for  a  great  portion  of  the 
Hong  Kong  and  Singapore  trade  is  in  German  hands, 
and  is  with  Germany.  The  United  States'  share  will, 
of  course,  now  increase  very  rapidly,  especially  in  view 
of  the  tariff  imposed.  Whether  the  tariff  is  the  best 
thing  for  the  Philippines  is  doubtful,  but  it  will  raise  the 
proportion  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  opinion  of 
Americans  give  them  a  hold  that  will  be  difficult  to 
shake  even  should  the  tariff  be  done  away  with  later  on. 

The  extent  of  British  interests  is  further  evidenced  by 
a  few  facts.  There  are  twenty  British  firms  in  Manila, 
and  two  of  the  three  banks  are  English,  the  third  being 


ii4  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Spanish  —  one  of  the  few  survivals  of  the  ancient  regime. 
The  one  railway,  as  already  mentioned,  is  also  British. 
A  good  deal  of  British  capital,  too,  is  invested  in  firms 
with  foreign  names.  Next  to  the  British  come  the  Ger- 
mans, who  are  here  as  active  as  elsewhere  and  are  rap- 
idly pushing  their  way. 

The  great  resources  of  the  islands  have  been  hardly 
as  yet  touched,  for  in  addition  to  the  hemp,  tobacco,  and 
copra  largely  exported,  there  are  woods  of  great  variety 
and  considerable  value,  gold  and  coal,  and  many  valuable 
minerals,  of  which  too  little  is  known  to  speak  with  any 
confidence.  Notwithstanding  the  existence  of  coal  in 
various  islands,  it  is  at  present  unworked,  and  fuel  has 
to  be  imported  from  Moji  in  Japan  or  from  Newcastle  in 
New  South  Wales.  The  excellent  tobacco,  which  already 
furnishes  the  material  for  a  great  and  growing  industry, 
can  be  largely  developed  by  means  of  improved  appli- 
ances and  the  employment  of  capital  properly  organised, 
and  will  one  day  perhaps  rival  that  of  Cuba  or  at  any 
rate  take  a  second  place  in  providing  the  world  with 
cigars  of  a  fine  quality.  The  forests  which  have  been 
sadly  neglected  will  now,  it  is  to  be  expected,  be  prop- 
erly looked  after,  and  much  can  be  learned  from  India 
and  Burma,  where  the  state  obtains  such  large  and 
increasing  revenues  from  this  source,  while  preserving 
these  countries  from  the  evils  attendant  on  the  reckless 
destruction  of  the  forests  and  the  absence  of  measures 
for  renewing  them.  In  mining  and  planting  there  will 
be  many  openings  for  capital,  but  a  word  of  warning  is 
here  required.  This  is  no  poor  man's  country,  no  place 
for  the  individual  digger  —  the  climate  and  cost  of  liv- 
ing preclude  that  —  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Gov- 
ernment will  be  able  to  prevent  the  influx  of  a  large 


RIVER   SCENE  AND   CONVENTO 


THE  UNITED   STATES  IN  THE   PHILIPPINES        115 

number  of  unemployed.  Already  mean  whites  are 
abundant  and  on  the  increase.  Nothing  would  make 
the  task  before  the  Government  more  difficult  than  to 
have  the  country  flooded  with  the  residuum  of  the 
States.  The  legitimate  openings  will  be  very  few  and 
confined  to  the  official  posts,  merchants'  assistants,  en- 
gineers, and  a  small  number  of  artificers  and  mechan- 
ics, many  of  which  openings  will  be  filled  from  the  large 
number  of  volunteers  who  have  had  the  advantage  of 

o 

seeing  something  of  the  country  and  are  on  the  spot. 

The  inter-island  steam  communication  is  very  defec- 
tive, sailings  being  irregular,  and  the  accommodation 
and  food  very  bad.  The  communication  with  the  outer 
world  is  fairly  good  as  far  as  quantity  is  concerned,  but 
rates  are  very  high  and  accommodation  indifferent. 
Between  Manila  and  Hong  Kong  there  are  six  regular 
British  steamers,  and  every  three  weeks  others  call,  en 
route  to  Japan  from  Calcutta ;  communication  with 
Australia  is  maintained  via  Manila  by  a  Japanese  Mail 
Company,  and  a  Spanish  Company,  the  Transatlantica, 
plies  monthly  between  Manila  and  Liverpool  via  Spain. 
Strange  to  say,  there  is  no  American  line  yet  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Philippines,  but  a  direct 
lines  of  steamers  and  a  cable  are  to  be  established  be- 
tween San  Francisco  and  Manila. 

The  naval  headquarters  now  established  at  Cavite, 
near  Manila,  are  to  be  removed  to  Subig  Bay,  about 
sixty  miles  northward,  where  good  and  safe  shelter  is  to 
be  had  in  an  admirable  position,  easy  of  defence  and 
perfectly  landlocked.  American  war-vessels  and  trans- 
ports are  still  obliged  to  go  to  Hong  Kong,  as  there  are 
no  facilities  in  the  Philippines  suitable  for  large  vessels. 
In  view  of  the  naval  importance  of  the  islands  it  is 


n6  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

imperative  that  proper  accommodation  be  provided  ade- 
quate to  the  requirements  of  the  future  needs  of  the 
large  naval  force  that  will  have  to  be  maintained  in  the 
Western  Pacific.  The  harbour  of  Manila  is  to  be 
improved  at  considerable  cost,  a  measure  much  required 
in  view  of  the  deficient  anchorage  for  vessels,  the  plan 
adopted  being  an  adaptation  of  a  scheme  sanctioned  by 
the  Spanish. 


FIESTA   TIME. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE    FUTURE    OF    THE    PHILIPPINES 

AT  the  earliest  possible  moment  after  the  quelling  of 
the  insurrection,  considerably  before  that  movement  was 
really  stamped  out,  the  United  States  set  to  work  to  pro- 
vide the  Philippines  with  civil  government.  In  the 
scheme  devised  it  was  the  aim  to  give  the  Filipinos  as 
much  voice  as  possible  in  their  own  government.  The 
somewhat  hasty  manner  in  which  these  changes  were 
carried  out  was  no  doubt  partly  due  to  pressure  brought 
to  bear  by  a  large  party  in  the  States,  who  regard  any 
attempt  to  rule  the  Filipino  as  tyranny,  and  demand  that 
he  should  be  given  the  freedom  for  which  he  has  been 

117 


n8  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

fighting.  The  position  is  rather  a  difficult  one  for  the 
United  States,  for  they  have  no  precedents  to  fall  back 
on,  and  to  continue  a  military  government  after  actual 
campaigning  is  over  savours  too  much  of  the  Crown 
Colony,  and  is  contrary  to  the  traditions  of  the  United 
States.  Many  people  have  tried  to  find  constitutional 
reasons  why  the  Philippines  cannot  be  retained  and  gov- 
erned, but  after  wading  through  the  pros  and  cons  it 
becomes  pretty  clear  to  the  reader  that  the  United  States 
Constitution  is  no  hide-bound  affair,  but  can  be  inter- 
preted according  to  the  will  of  the  people.  As  the 
majority  of  the  United  States  citizens  would  not  coun- 
tenance a  summary  departure  from  the  Philippines,  some 
method  of  government  had  to  be  devised  which  would 
not  offend  the  susceptibilities  of  another  majority  who 
think  the  Filipino  should  be  allowed  to  govern  himself. 
Between  these  two  stools  the  United  States  is  balancing 
herself  as  best  she  may.  A  brief  description  of  the  sys- 
tem of  government  devised  will  best  show  how  she  is 
doing  it. 

The  islands  are  divided  into  provinces,  and  the  prov- 
inces contain  so  many  municipalities.  The  municipalities 
elect  their  own  town  council  and  mayor,  or  presidente, 
collect  the  municipal  taxes,  and  manage  their  own  affairs. 
Three  or  four  times  a  year  \he  presidente s  in  each  prov- 
ince are  to  meet  in  the  capital  to  discuss  matters  of 
interest  and  to  take  advice  in  any  difficulty.  This 
municipal  government  is  independent,  but  is  overlooked 
by  the  Governor  of  the  province,  who  has  the  power  to 
suspend  a  man  suspected  of  a  dereliction  of  duty,  and  the 
accounts  are  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  provincial 
treasurer.  The  Provincial  Government  is  composed  of 
five  officials:  the  Governor,  elected  by  councillors  for 


THE   FUTURE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES  119 

two  years,  for  which  post  any  American  citizen,  native 
or  otherwise,  is  eligible;  the  treasurer,  a  permanent 
official,  who  must  be  an  American ;  the  supervisor,  a 
permanent  official,  who  must  be  a  trained  engineer  and 
surveyor,  and  therefore  for  the  present  also  an  American  ; 
the  secretary,  who  is  to  act  as  vice-governor,  elected  for 
two  years,  and  usually  a  native  ;  the  fiscal,  or. attorney, 
who  must  be  a  qualified  lawyer  and  may  be  either  native 
or  American.  Theoretically  these  governments  are  in- 
dependent, but  it  will  be  seen  that  the  control  of  the 
finances  is  left  with  American  officials.  The  treasurer 
collects  the  provincial  revenues  and  sees  to  their  dis- 
bursement himself;  he  also  checks  municipal  expendi- 
ture and  collects  the  taxes  for  the  Central  Government. 
He  has,  therefore,  three  different  systems  to  control, 
which  are  all  kept  distinct.  The  supervisor,  too,  is  an 
American,  for  the  public  works,  with  the  many  opportu- 
nities for  corruption,  could  not  possibly  be  entrusted  to 
the  Filipinos.  It  was  not  practicable  to  hand  over  to 
the  Filipinos  the  control  of  any  of  the  finances  —  this 
is  the  one  point  on  which  there  has  been  no  dissentient 
voice.  It  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  mere  control  of 
money  will  remedy  the  deficiency.  Actual  money 
collection  and  expenditure  are  not  the  only  media  for 
corrupt  practices ;  influence  and  power  are  to  be  bought 
and  sold,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  ensure  the  neces- 
sary degree  of  uprightness  in  the  Government,  notwith- 
standing the  checks  imposed  on  expenditure. 

In  establishing  this  system  the  United  States  provided 
a  further  check  on  the  provinces  by  the  power  of  the 
Central  Government  to  veto  the  appointment  of  a  Gov- 
ernor, or,  when  appointed,  to  suspend  him  should  there 
be  reasons  for  suspecting  his  loyalty,  or  should  he  be 


120  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

proved  guilty  of  dishonest  practices,  or  for  other 
similar  reasons.  If  this  were  carried  practically  into 
effect,  however,  no  Filipino  would  probably  prove  to  be 
eligible,  but  large  numbers  have  already  been  tempo- 
rarily appointed  by  the  commission,  and  when  the  first 
Filipino  elections  take  place  still  larger  numbers  will 
be  elected,  for  many  of  the  present  Governors  who  are 
American  military  officers  will  then  be  succeeded  by 
natives.  The  power  to  veto  and  suspend  are,  of  course, 
quite  necessary  precautions,  but  extreme  care  must  be 
taken  in  exercising  the  prerogative,  and  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  in  practice  many  Governors  will  remain  in  office 
who  are  neither  loyal  nor  incorruptible.  The  burning 
and  vital  question,  which  is  of  far  more  importance  than 
any  discussion  as  to  the  actual  functions  of  officials, 
methods  of  electing  them,  or  other  details,  is  whether  or 
not  the  Filipinos  are  capable  of  self-government.  Astute 
Americans,  who  answer  this  question  in  the  negative, 
believe  that  they  can  give  their  "  little  brown  brothers  "  a 
semblance  of  self-government  —  something  to  play  with 
—  while  at  the  same  time  maintaining  a  careful  check 
on  them,  and  in  fact  keeping  the  control  firmly  in  their 
own  hands.  This  they  think  will  satisfy  philanthropists 
in  the  United  States  and  patriots  in  the  Philippines. 
Less  astute  Americans,  who  hold  the  view  that,  given 
the  example  of  the  United  States  and  some  of  her  "  rep- 
resentative institutions,"  the  Filipinos  are  capable  of 
raising  themselves  to  the  height  of  a  civilised  and 
enlightened  nation,  believe  that  they  have  only  got  to- 
frame  codes  and  laws  and  found  governments  and  then 
to  leave  them  alone.  Both  are  far  from  the  truth. 

In  all  discussions  as  to   Filipino  character  it  is  this 
point  to  which  everything  is  focussed  —  the  capacity  for 


THE    FUTURE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES  121 

self-government  —  for  that  signifies  many  qualities,  and 
on  it  practically  hangs  the  future  of  the  race.  Masses  of 
evidence  have  been  collected  on  the  subject,  much  of  it 
very  contradictory,  and  it  is  difficult  to  decide  where 
doctors  disagree.  But  if  one  considers  the  different  races 
which  have  been  blended  in  these  islands,  and,  while 
remembering  their  recognised  racial  characteristics, 
makes  due  allowances  for  the  modifications  produced 
by  so  great  an  admixture  of  blood,  we  shall  be  able  to 
account  for  many  contradictions.  It  is  important  always 
to  remember  that  the  people  of  the  Philippines  are  not 
homogeneous ;  but,  while  there  are  wide  differences  of 
speech  and  disposition  in  the  inhabitants  of  many  of 
the  islands,  a  very  large  proportion  are  permeated  with 
a  Malay  element.  Some  islands  indeed  are  populated 
with  almost  pure  Malays.  Of  the  other  native  races,  the 
Indonesian  tribes  are  found  in  the  mountains,  whither 
they  had  been  driven  by  the  advancing  tide  of  Malays ; 
and  the  Negritos,  the  original  inhabitants,  are  an  incon- 
siderable and  vanishing  race,  of  no  political  importance. 

What,  then,  are  the  characteristics  and  possibilities  of 
the  Malays,  as  shown  hitherto  in  their  relations  with 
Europeans  ? 

Those  who  have  been  intimately  connected  with  the 
Malays  have  to  a  great  extent  fallen  under  the  spell 
of  a  certain  charm  in  their  character.  They  speak  with 
enthusiasm  of  their  brightness  and  hospitality,  of  a 
certain  tenderness  of  heart,  and  many  other  traits  which 
make  them  pleasant  comrades.  They  are  said  to  be 
easy  to  rule,  so  long  as  they  recognise  their  master,  to 
be  brave  and  reckless,  though  superstitious.  But  their 
most  ardent  admirers,  men  like  Swettenham  and  Clif- 
ford, are  the  first  to  allow  that  they  possess  to  an  extraor- 


122  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

dinary  degree  the  defects  of  their  qualities,  and  agree 
that,  whether  physically  or  morally,  they  degenerate 
when  brought  under  the  influence  of  Western  civilisa- 
tion, losing  some  of  their  own  primitive  virtues,  which 
had  their  foundation  in  custom  rather  than  morality, 
and  failing  to  acquire  others  which  require  the  exercise 
of  reason  and  discipline.  Other  deficiencies  in  their 
mental  and  moral  equipment  are  a  lack  of  organising 
power.  No  Malay  nation  has  ever  emerged  from  the 
hordes  of  that  race  which  have  spread  over  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific.  Wherever  they  are  found  they  have 
certain  marked  characteristics,  and  of  these  the  most 
remarkable  is  their  lack  of  that  spirit  which  goes  to  form 
a  homogeneous  people,  to  weld  them  together.  The 
Malay  is  always  a  provincial ;  more,  he  rarely  rises  out- 
side the  interests  of  his  own  town  or  village.  He  is 
never  honest,  as  we  count  that  virtue,  never  truthful, 
and  never  industrious  or  persevering.  This  is  his  dark 
side,  but  it  is  with  that  we  are  concerned.  The  two 
points  which  are  most  inimical  to  progress  are,  as 
already  indicated,  the  lack  of  unity  and  the  lack  of  per- 
sistence. The  Malay  is  the  laziest  of  Orientals,  and  the 
Filipino  is  not  the  least  lazy  of  Malays.  The  Malay,  in 
short,  is  a  creature  of  limitations. 

On  this  stock  has  been  grafted  many  shoots,  and  the 
result  in  the  Philippines  is  a  population  so  heterogeneous 
as  almost  to  defy  analysis,  since  it  is  impossible  to  trace 
the  infinite  gradations  of  colour,  or  to  decide  in  what 
proportion  the  half-caste  blood  is  mixed.  The  principal 
elements  in  this  mixture  are  Spanish  and  Chinese.  The 
Chinese  mestizos,  or  half-breeds,  have  the  reputation  of 
being  amongst  the  most  brainy  and  also  the  most  difficile 
of  the  natives,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  insur- 


THE    FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  123 

gents  belonged  to  this  class.  The  Chinese  character  is 
so  involved,  and  so  impossible  to  generalise,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  suggest  the  possible  modifications  it  would 
make  on  the  Malay ;  but  when  we  remember  the  strong 
conservatism  of  the  Chinese,  and  their  intense  supersti- 
tion, we  cannot  be  surprised  at  the  prominence  of  these 
two  qualities  in  their  Filipino  descendants.  Some  of 
the  traditions  current  in  the  Philippines,  for  instance  the 
idea  that  mines  could  not  be  opened  without  the  appli- 
cation to  the  "  veins  "  of  an  unguent  composed  of  old 
women's  eyes,  and  a  report,  as  late  as  1830,  that  children 
were  to  be  seized  that  their  blood  might  water  the  gold 
and  silver  mines  of  Spain  —  a  report  which  occasioned 
considerable  disturbances  —  these  are  characteristically 
Chinese.  The  Chinese  indifference  to  human  suffering 
and  cheap  estimate  of  human  life  have  also  made  their 
mark,  being  only  exaggerated  forms  of  ideas  common 
to  all  Orientals.  The  artistic  and  creative  qualities 
of  the  Chinese  are  those  which  have  left  least  impression, 
for  reasons  to  be  suggested  later  on. 

The  Spaniards  have,  of  course,  exercised  a  double 
influence,  not  only  that  of  intermarriage,  but  through 
their  position  as  the  governing  and  civilising  element. 
The  faults  and  peculiarities  of  the  Latin  races  are  exag- 
gerated and  burlesqued,  and  a  thin  veneer  of  Western 
culture  is  spread  over  the  passions  and  emotions  of  these 
Orientals.  The  Filipinos  have  in  particular  assim- 
ilated certain  qualities  which  appeal  to  their  sense 
of  colour  —  to  their  love  of  show.  The  glibness  of 
the  delegates  who  attended  the  United  States  com- 
missions was  remarkable,  when  one  considered  that  in 
many  cases  they  were  drawn  from  humble  pueblos  — 


124  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 

mere  villages  —  and  that  their  education  must  have 
been  of  the  most  elementary  character.  These  wordy 
speeches,  when  translated  or  put  into  cold  print,  con- 
tained but  the  smallest  dregs  of  matter,  but  their  delivery 
and  the  promptness  of  the  replies  to  questions  are 
characteristic  of  the  eloquent,  wordy,  frothy  Latin  races, 
among  whom  every  lounger  at  the  village  hostelry  is  at 
once  an  orator  and  a  politician  —  great  in  words,  but 
not  in  deeds,  for  his  patriotism  seldom  gets  beyond  the 
talking  stage.  Whatever  may  be  lacking  in  the  new 
government,  there  will  inevitably  be  plenty  of  discussion  ! 

It  is  the  well-known  tendency  of  the  Latin  races  to 
be  "intoxicated  with  the  exuberance  of  their  own  ver- 
bosity," and  when  their  dangerous  facility  of  speech  is 
transmitted  to  a  people  who  have,  by  reason  of  their 
race  and  history,  even  less  mental  ballast,  it  is  to 
be  feared  that  with  increased  liberty  will  arise  a  class 
of  windy  politicians  whose  influence  will  be  inimical 
to  peace  and  tranquillity,  since  a  grievance  is  necessary 
to  point  their  periods. 

One  thing  is  certain.  Though  the  Spaniards  had  in- 
troduced politics  into  the  island,  they  could  hardly 
induce  patriotism,  for  that  sentiment,  in  its  true  broad 
sense,  is  notably  lacking  in  Spain  itself,  where  the  evils 
of  party  government  are  more  crying  than  perhaps  in 
any  other  country,  and  where  the  whole  nation  is  torn 
this  way  and  that  in  faction  fights,  the  condition  of 
larger  affairs  being  repeated  in  the  petty  jealousies  be- 
tween village  and  village. 

The  intellectual  subtlety  of  the  Latin  has  also  been 
curiously  grafted  on  to  the  simplicity — which  is  not 
stupidity  —  of  the  Malay.  The  result  is  a  peculiar 
leaning  towards  abstract  ideas,  a  love  of  the  purely 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  125 

theoretical  side  of  learning,  with  a  corresponding  inabil- 
ity to  apply  those  theories,  which  are  to  them  things 
apart  from  real  life — things  they  have  learned  or  read, 
and  not  evolved  from  life  itself.  They  begin  with  the 
abstract  and  fail  to  work  down  to  the  concrete,  instead 
of  taking  the  concrete  and  so,  through  circles  of  thought, 
reaching  the  abstract.  Their  knowledge  of  rhetoric, 
logic,  and  philosophy  is  of  little  use  to  them,  therefore, 
and  even  as  an  intellectual  exercise  it  fails  of  its  pur- 
pose because  it  has  no  sure  end  or  aim.  A  witty  Amer- 
ican who,  being  a  fluent  Spanish  scholar,  had  conversed 
with  hundreds  of  the  better-educated  Filipinos,  said  of 
them :  "  They  will  write  you  essays  on  Individual  Rights 
until  you  are  tired,  but  if  they  met  Individual  Rights  in 
the  street  they  wouldn't  know  him  from  Adam  !  "  This 
is  the  inevitable  result  of  Spanish  influence.  No  race  is 
less  fit  to  amalgamate  with  or  govern  such  people  as  the 
Filipinos  than  a  decadent  Latin  one,  whose  shallows 
have  a  brilliance  attractive  to  a  childlike,  colour-loving 
race,  whose  faults  are  principally  the  result  of  a  lack  of 
mental  and  moral  rigidity  —  therefore  equally  congenial 
to  people  who  knew  nothing  of  discipline  —  and  whose 
virtues  are  the  result  of  a  long  period  of  civilisation  and 
culture,  and  cannot  be  acquired  ready-made  by  even  the 
quickest  and  most  adaptive  of  natives. 

It  is  curious  that  the  chief  glory  of  Spain,  her  pre- 
eminence in  painting  and  sculpture,  has  found  no  echo 
in  these  islands,  but  the  fact  only  emphasises  what  has 
been  said  as  to  the  predominance  of  the  Malay  element. 
The  Malays  have  not  produced  artists  in  any  of  the 
countries  to  which  they  have  spread,  and  though  at 
times  they  produce  pretty  decorative  work,  it  has  little 
individuality,  and  is  usually  copied  from  Chinese,  Hin- 


126  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

doos,  or  whatever  race  has  come  in  contact  with  them. 
Despite  the  wonderful  carvings  of  the  Hindoo  temples 
in  Java  (where  the  Malays  reached  their  highest  point  of 
indigenous  civilisation)  there  is  no  such  thing  as  native 
carving  to  be  seen  in  that  island.  They  had  not  even 
the  desire  to  emulate  what  their  Hindoo  conquerors  had 
done. 

The  artistic  element  in  Spanish  civilisation  seems 
to  have  been  incommunicable,  at  any  rate  so  far 
as  creation  is  concerned.  This  want  of  originality  is  so 
marked  a  feature  of  Filipino  character  that  it  is  as 
though  we  ran  our  heads  against  a  dead  wall  in  Malay 
characteristics.  The  Malay  has  no  creative  ability. 
Ages  ago  he  evolved  his  idea  of  a  house,  and  that 
house  can  be  seen  now,  in  any  of  the  islands  to  which 
he  has  penetrated  —  always  the  same.  The  sameness 
of  his  musical  instruments,  his  ornaments,  his  weapons, 
is  remarkable,  especially  when  we  consider  the  wide 
range  of  the  Malay  invasion  and  the  lack  of  commu- 
nication between  the  different  islands  over  which  that 
invasion  spread.  The  modifications  induced  in  the  race 
by  a  variety  of  climate  and  conditions  have  not  affected 
the  elemental  characteristics  of  the  Malay  at  all,  and 
of  these  the  most  striking  is  the  lack  of  initiative,  the 
absence  of  that  quality  which  marks  certain  men  out 
and  makes  them  heroes  and  leaders.  The  Malay  race, 
it  has  been  said  with  a  good  deal  of  justice,  has  only 
produced  one  man  whose  ability  deserves,  and  has  ac- 
quired, a  world-wide  celebrity — Rizal.  The  insurgent 
leaders,  especially  Aguinaldo,  have  acquired  notoriety 
but  not  fame.  This  state  of  affairs  cannot  be  wholly 
fortuitous,  nor  can  it  be  attributed  to  deficiencies  of 
opportunity  or  to  unfavourable  circumstances,  since  these 


THE   FUTURE  OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  127 

were  ever  the  hotbed  of  genius.  We  are  compelled  to 
acknowledge  the  limitations  of  the  Malay,  and  to  sus- 
pect that  wherever  his  race  is  predominant  it  will  be 
rare  indeed  to  find  an  individual  triumphing  over  these 
trammels.  To  this  universal  mediocrity  is  no  doubt 
due  the  very  slight  degree  of  civilisation  ever  attained 
by  the  Malays  without  outside  influence,  and  also  their 
political  inefficiency.  Great  intellectual  or  moral  achieve- 
ments may  require  for  their  consummation  a  certain 
preparedness  on  the  part  of  the  majority  of  the  people 
they  affect,  but  all  such  need  to  be  initiated  by  some 
master-mind.  Luther  has  been  compared  to  the  match 
that  fired  the  mine,  but  without  him  who  can  doubt 
that  the  Reformation  would  have  been  delayed  and 
might  have  been  stultified  ?  The  Occidental  races  are 
rich  in  individuals  of  superior  power,  courage,  and  at- 
tainments. Anglo-Saxons,  in  particular,  owe  the  lustre 
of  their  history  largely  to  the  great  deeds  of  single  men, 
often  private  individuals  —  not  so  the  Orientals.  There 
have  been  heroes  in  the  past,  but  most  belong  to  the  age 
of  myth,  and  for  many  centuries  China,  once  the  greatest 
and  most  civilised  of  Oriental  countries,  has  been  wait- 
ing in  vain  for  a  God-sent  leader. 

There  are  few,  even  among  the  Filipinos  themselves, 
who  really  deny  the  elementary  propositions  set  forth, 
but  there  are  a  great  many,  including  a  number  of 
Americans,  who  believe  that  education  will  remedy  these 
characteristic  defects  in  Filipino  evolution. 

The  question  is,  whether  this  power  of  initiative,  which 
involves  not  only  ability,  courage,  and  frequently  self- 
devotion,  but  also  a  peculiar  tenacity  of  purpose,  is  a 
quality  that  can  be  inculcated,  or  whether  it  is  innate. 
We  cannot  argue  from  previous  experience,  for  nowhere 


128  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

are  the  conditions  precisely  similar ;  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  one  of  the  chief  ingredients  in  the  char- 
acter of  men  who  have  made  history  is  their  independence 
of  outside  conditions.  Many  have  risen  from  positions 
far  inferior  in  advantages  to  that  of  a  young  Filipino 
who  has  had  a  Manila  education  and  is  free  to  travel  in 
France,  Germany,  or  where  he  will.  Great  artists  have 
educated  themselves  by  drawing  in  secret  with  burnt 
sticks.  Heaven-born  musicians  have  poured  forth  har- 
mony before  they  had  been  taught  the  A  B  C  of  musical 
technology.  Statesmen  have  risen  from  the  ranks  of 
petty  clerks,  and  have  secured  empires  for  their  nation. 
The  greatest  of  soldiers  and  the  most  remarkable  of  men 
was  born  in  a  half-savage  island  and  started  life  as  a 
lieutenant  of  artillery.  Instances  could  be  multiplied, 
but  the  point  is  too  well  established  to  need  it.  The 
master-mind  must  come  to  the  front  —  genius  of  the 
true  sort,  original,  creative,  cannot  be  choked  or  hidden. 
As  a  rule,  the  world's  great  men  have  owed  little  of 
their  success  to  education  or  training,  save  what  they 
have  given  themselves.  One  may  be  born  great,  achieve 
greatness,  or  have  greatness  thrust  upon  one,  but  we 
have  yet  to  learn  that  one  can  be  taught  to  be  great. 
This  is,  of  course,  no  argument  against  the  best  and 
highest  education — only  a  warning  that  we  must  not 
expect  too  much  from  it. 

Lack  of  homogeneity,  of  initiative,  of  true  patriotism, 
shallowness,  fondness  for  show  and  ceremony  —  these 
are  serious  indictments  against  the  Filipinos,  but  an 
even  more  serious  one  is  that  of  untrustworthiness, 
added  to  the  power  of  deceiving  the  most  vigilant.  They 
have  the  Oriental  capacity  of  concealing  their  thoughts, 
added  to  the  histrionic  powers  of  the  Latin  races  —  they 


THE   FUTURE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES  129 

are  accomplished  actors.  As  an  example  of  this  may  be 
quoted  the  fact  that  many  of  the  towns  under  American 
occupation  during  the  recent  war  had  two  distinct  gov- 
ernments —  one,  of  course,  under  the  United  States 
officers,  the  other  a  hidden  organisation  of  the  insur- 
rectos.  Incredible  as  it  may  seem,  the  same  men  were 
afterwards  discovered  to  have  sometimes  acted  on  both, 
and  displayed,  as  was  naively  remarked  by  the  military 
Governor,  "  considerable  apparent  solicitude  for  the  inter- 
ests of  both."  Another  instance  is  the  fact,  well  known 
in  Manila,  that  a  great  number  of  families  in  that  city 
who  were  receiving  the  Americans  with  ovations,  feast- 
ing and  entertaining  them,  were  at  the  same  time  cov- 
ertly subscribing  large  funds  to  the  insurrectos.  The 
moral  obliquity  of  the  Oriental  has  more  than  once 
baffled  their  opponents  in  the  Philippines,  and  is  an  ele- 
ment which  needs  to  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

In  one  respect  there  is  an  absolute  consensus  of  opin- 
ion as  to  the  Filipino,  and  this  has  led  to  the  provisions 
already  noted  in  the  Civil  Government  scheme  by  which 
all  finances  are  to  be  controlled  by  Americans.  The 
writer  has  already  stated  that  this  is  a  rather  futile  pre- 
caution against  peculation,  but  like  the  whole  system,  it 
is  a  compromise  —  the  best  perhaps  that  can  be  done 
under  the  circumstances.  But  that  a  man  should  be 
pronounced  fit  for  self-government  while  he  cannot  be 
entrusted  with  public  funds  is  an  anomaly  equal  to 
"  liberty,  but  no  latch-key  " ! 

A  very  grave  side  to  Filipino  character,  and  one  which 
has  received  little  attention  in  the  States  among  the 
ardent  friends  of  the  "  little  brown  brother,"  is  the  cruelty 
displayed  by  them  in  the  recent  warfare,  not  towards 
American  captives,  who  were  well  treated  as  a  rule,  but 


130  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

towards  each  other.  Assassination  and  torture  were 
commonly  practised  by  the  insurrectos  under  the  direct 
instigation  of  their  leaders,  and  the  peasants  were 
frequently  harried  and  terrorised  in  a  manner  which 
made  the  rule  of  Spain  seem  light  in  comparison.  It 
may  be  argued,  of  course,  that  the  insurrectos  did  not 
represent  the  best  element  in  the  country,  but  while  that 
is  true  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  included  the  more 
restless,  daring,  and  clever  spirits,  and  that  these  are  the 
men  who  will  inevitably  come  to  the  front  under  any 
administration. 

The  United  States  have  resolved  to  make  a  great 
experiment  in  the  Philippines.  The  majority  of  the 
men  who  framed  the  Civil  Government  System  do  not 
believe  that  the  Filipino  is  to  be  trusted,  but  they  wish 
to  give  him  an  education  in  government,  and  to  do  this 
they  propose  the  method  already  described,  which  they 
believe  will  satisfy  his  aspirations  while  keeping  him  in 
leading-strings.  It  is  obvious  that  such  a  system  must 
be  progressive.  As  the  Filipino  learns  he  will  break 
loose  from  the  leading-strings,  and  the  next  generation 
will  want  to  do  without  them.  To  fit  that  coming  gen- 
eration for  its  future,  education  of  the  most  advanced 
and  up-to-date  type  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  islands 
at  one  coup,  and  by  the  salutary  effects  of  train- 
ing the  evil  tendencies  of  the  Filipino  race  —  half 
hereditary,  half  the  results  of  misgovernment  —  are  to 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

It  is  a  beautiful  theory  and  a  beautiful  scheme,  but 
unfortunately  it  involves  an  entire  subversion  of  the  laws 
of  Nature.  To  educate  a  nation  is  a  grand  and  noble 
aim,  but  it  cannot  be  accomplished  in  one  generation  or 
even  in  two.  And  here  the  task  is  complicated  by  the 


THE   FUTURE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES  131 

fact  that  the  Filipinos  are  not  a  nation.  "  The  United 
States,"  said  a  prominent  American,  "  has  fought  her 
way  through  centuries  of  progress  towards  the  goal  of 
universal  suffrage  and  democratic  government,"  but 
he  forgot  to  add  that  long  before  the  United  States 
began  that  fight  the  ancestors  of  Americans  were 
struggling  slowly  but  surely  through  the  mists  of  by- 
gone ages  towards  freedom  and  liberty  of  thought  and 
action. 

It  is  the  results  of  these  centuries  of  struggle  and 
progress  that  they  propose  to  thrust  at  once  ready-made 
on  the  half-fledged  Filipino. 

If  the  little  brown  brother  were  altogether  simple  and 
amenable  the  danger  would  be  less,  though  still  con- 
siderable ;  but  he  is  neither.  He  is  a  half-civilised, 
clever,  irresponsible  child,  who  has  warped  ideas  as  to 
right  and  wrong.  If  unnaturally  stimulated,  he  may 
grow  up  into  a  Frankenstein. 

The  proper  education  of  the  Filipino,  if  not  unduly 
hurried,  will  prove  in  the  long  run  an  untold  benefit  to 
the  race.  Those,  however,  who  initiate  it  cannot  hope 
to  live  to  see  its  happiest  effects.  In  mere  knowledge  a 
very  few  years  will  probably  make  an  enormous  differ- 
ence, and  will  turn  the  mass  of  Filipinos,  who  have 
hitherto  learned  little  more  than  the  catechism,  into  a 
horde  of  precocious  youngsters  with  all  the  text-book 
facts  at  their  finger-tips.  But  true  education  which 
affects  the  character,  which  teaches  a  man  to  think  for 
himself,  to  discern  between  true  and  untrue,  to  seek 
in  everything  the  highest  —  the  education  in  fact  of  a 
nation  up  to  the  standards  of  true  citizenship  —  this 
cannot  be  crammed  in  a  few  years. 

The   Filipinos   labour  under   one  tremendous   disad- 


1 32  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

vantage  —  they  have  so  much  to  unlearn.  The  system 
under  which  they  have  lived  for  nearly  three  centu- 
turies  has  confirmed  them  in  habits  of  mind  which 
cannot  be  eradicated  at  once.  Nominally  a  fairly  good 
provision  was  made  for  primary  instruction,  but,  like 
many  others,  it  was  never  carried  into  force.  The  pro- 
portion was  something  like  one  teacher  to  each  four 
thousand,  and  there  were  no  proper  schoolhouses,  no 
furniture,  no  text-books.  The  schools  met  in  the 
teacher's  house,  or  sometimes  even  in  the  stables  or 
coach-house  of  the  conventos,  and  the  teachers,  wretch- 
edly paid  and  badly  treated,  were  often  quite  unfit  for 
their  tasks. 

The  curriculum  was  extremely  limited,  but  the  actual 
attainments  of  the  children  more  limited  still.  Sacred 
history,  the  catechism,  and  the  elements  of  reading  and 
writing  were  the  usual  subjects,  and  sometimes  the  four 
elementary  arithmetical  processes.  Geography  books 
were  used  for  reading  in  a  few  towns,  and  girls  learned 
embroidery  and  needlework.  In  the  convent  and  mon- 
astery schools  for  children  of  the  better  class  the  list 
of  subjects  was  sometimes  more  formidable.  The  writer 
visited  one  where  calisthenics,  philosophy,  logic,  and 
rhetoric  were  supposed  to  be  imparted  along  with 
European  geography,  astronomy,  and  many  other  sub- 
jects. But  the  pleasant  little  Spanish  sisters  possessed 
no  maps  save  two  of  the  Philippines  and  one  of  Spain, 
and  their  library  was  of  the  same  order.  In  Manila 
the  primary  schools,  though  nominally  public,  were  in 
reality  heavily  subsidised  private  institutions.  There 
was  no  superintendent  of  education,  no  central  organi- 
sation or  department  of  city  schools.  The  teachers 
received  a  small  wage  and  a  house  from  the  municipal- 


THE   FUTURE  OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  133 

ity,  and  the  people  had  to  pay  for  the  education  of 
their  children  according  to  their  means,  the  best-paying 
pupil  receiving  the  most  attention.  The  text-books 
provided  by  Government  were  sold  to  the  well-to-do 
pupils,  and  in  many  other  ways  the  teachers  contrived 
to  make  a  good  thing  out  of  their  ill-paid  posts  —  ill- 
paid  is  hardly  the  term,  for  the  salaries  were  twelve 
dollars  (Mexican)  monthly  for  women  and  twenty  for 
male  teachers.  The  children  entered  school  from  the 
ages  of  three  to  six,  and  three  years  was  the  average 
maximum  record  of  their  school  life.  The  following 
account  of  their  text-books  is  given  by  Mr.  Atkinson, 
now  the  Superintendent  of  Education  in  the  Philip- 
pines : 

"  The  first  book  placed  in  the  pupil's  hand  was  a  little 
paper-bound  primer  of  less  than  forty  pages  of  text, 
'  The  Heavenly  Shepherd.'  This  little  book  contains 
the  alphabet,  the  syllables  of  the  Spanish  language,  a 
few  exercises  in  pronunciation  and  reading,  moral  and 
religious  reflection,  and  several  pages  of  simple  prayers, 
in  verse,  for  memorising.  A  few  very  rude  woodcuts, 
that  have  no  reference  to  the  text,  ornament  the  pages. 
This  primer  was  followed  by  a  second  little  volume, 
'  The  Admonitor.'  This  book  contains  about  one  hun- 
dred pages.  The  first  part  of  it  is  something  of  a  repeti- 
tion of  '  The  Heavenly  Shepherd.'  It  then  contains  a 
number  of  the  church  prayers  in  Spanish,  religious  com- 
mandments and  maxims,  a  poem  on  the  birth  of  the 
infant  Jesus,  and  a  few  pages  of  sacred  history,  from  the 
creation  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Then  follow  some 
forty  pages  of  '  Useful  Information,'  including  a  little 
number  work,  division  of  time,  geometric  figures,  a 
description  of  the  universe  and  of  the  earth,  with  an 


i34  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

account  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  of  Spain  and 
Spanish  history ;  a  few  pages  on  the  '  Three  Kingdoms 
of  Nature,'  and  two  pages  on  '  Hygiene  for  Children.' 
The  book  concludes  with  a  simple  explanation  of  the 
service  of  the  mass,  with  the  Litany.  These  two  modest 
volumes  comprised  the  total  of  '  book  learning '  received 
by  many  of  the  Filipino  children.  They  contain  all, 
apparently,  that  it  was  thought  advisable  that  the  ordi- 
nary Filipino  child  should  learn  and  the  average  native 
know." 

Everything  was  learned  by  rote,  and  the  Filipinos  have 
acquired  a  retentiveness  of  memory  second  only  to  that 
of  the  Chinese.  At  the  same  time  it  is  parrot  learn- 
ing, as  has  been  frequently  demonstrated  by  questions 
on  the  subject  of  a  discourse  delivered  with  the  ut- 
most glibness.  The  imitative  faculties  were  cultivated 
at  the  expense  of  the  reasoning  ones,  and  pupils  became 
mere  phonographs,  repeating  what  they  had  read  or 
memorised.  The  power  of  imitation  is  particularly  re- 
markable in  their  music.  An  air  once  heard  can  be 
reproduced  with  wonderful  fidelity.  When  American 
text-books  were  introduced,  the  native  teachers  com- 
plained that  they  asked  questions  but  did  not  supply  the 
answers !  No  attempt  was  made  to  enforce  discipline  in 
these  schools.  All  the  children  repeated  their  lessons  or 
studied  them  aloud,  and  the  teacher,  book  in  hand,  ap- 
proached one  after  the  other  to  hear  him  recite  above 
the  din,  while  the  rest  quarrelled,  played,  or  looked  out 
of  the  windows. 

A  few  able  pupils  would  perhaps  be  pushed  on,  and 
others,  desirous  of  more  education,  attended  the  normal 
schools,  where  rather  more  instruction  was  to  be  had. 
But,  despite  the  fact  that  they  were  intended  to  edu- 


THE  FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  135 

cate  teachers,  no  training  in  the  art  of  teaching  was  sup- 
plied. The  contempt  in  which  the  educational  profession 
was  held  was  a  great  bar  to  any  enthusiasm  or  quality  in 
its  ranks.  Many  who  passed  the  normal  colleges  never 
took  up  the  profession  at  all.  In  all  this  the  influence 
of  the  Church  was  largely  to  blame.  The  narrow,  exclu- 
sively religious  system  enforced  by  the  Orders,  their 
imperviousness  to  modern  or  external  ideas  and  influ- 
ences, were  noted  as  far  back  as  1770  by  a  Spanish  min- 
ister of  the  Colonies. 

In  higher  education,  at  the  colleges  provided  for  better- 
class  pupils,  the  training  was  equally  demoralising.  Phi- 
losophy, rhetoric,  and  the  abstract  sciences  were  given  a 
foremost  place,  while  mathematics,  practical  chemistry, 
and  other  studies  which  would  have  given  depth  and 
solidity,  were  neglected.  Technical  education  was  also 
almost  entirely  nominal,  though  the  Filipinos  show  a 
marked  aptitude  for  it,  and  it  is  related  by  a  prominent 
Filipino,  who  had  gone  to  learn  something  of  scientific 
agriculture  at  the  experimental  farm  established  by  the 
Government,  that  the  Friars  contented  themselves  with 
planting  lettuces ! 

From  all  this  to  a  modern  scientific  practical  educa- 
tion is  a  long  step,  but  the  United  States  are  sparing 
neither  time  nor  money,  and  the  reforms  instituted  are 
to  be  drastic  and  instantaneous.  School-teachers  of  both 
sexes  are  being  brought  from  the  States,  and  normal  col- 
leges for  training  native  teachers  in  modern  methods 
established,  for  the  first  essential  is  to  provide  a  staff 
of  thoroughly  competent  assistants.  Education  will,  of 
course,  be  entirely  non-religious,  and  will  be  as  practical 
as  possible,  while  special  schools  for  technical  training 
will  be  established.  Attendance  at  primary  schools  will 


136  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

be  compulsory  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve.  Ulti- 
mately it  is  hoped  to  affiliate  the  colleges  to  those  of  the 
United  States,  and  then  the  whole  scheme  of  education 
will  be  complete  and  thorough. 

The  Filipino  showed  from  the  first  the  greatest  de- 
sire to  benefit  by  the  more  enlightened  instruction  given 
in  the  schools,  frequently  by  military  schoolmasters, 
after  the  American  occupation,  and  the  night  schools 
opened  in  Manila  have  been  crowded  by  men  and 
women  anxious  to  learn  the  English  language.  The 
intention  is  to  make  this  the  school  language,  and  ulti- 
mately the  universal  medium  throughout  the  islands. 
This  is  a  most  important  step  and  one  fraught  with 
many  consequences,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  first 
result  will  be  to  bind  the  Filipinos  more  closely  to- 
gether. Hitherto,  although  Spanish  was  nominally  to 
be  learned  in  all  the  schools,  many  of  the  country  people 
could  speak  nothing  but  their  own  dialect,  which  in 
many  cases  was  unintelligible  to  those  dwelling  in  the 
next  island.  The  measure  is  certain,  however,  to  meet 
with  a  great  deal  of  criticism  in  various  quarters,  but 
those  who  decry  it  cannot  suggest  any  other  language 
which  could  with  equal  advantage  be  made  a  universal 
medium,  and  they  cannot  deny  that  some  such  medium 
is  absolutely  necessary.  There  is  no  Filipino  tongue  as 
there  is  no  Filipino  nation,  and  as  the  aim  of  all  well- 
wishers  of  the  little  brown  brothers  is  to  break  down  the 
barriers  that  have  hitherto  hedged  them  in  and  weld 
them  into  an  organised  and  civilised  nation,  it  must  be 
conceded  that  in  spreading  the  great  lingua  franca 
already  spoken  all  over  the  East  to  the  remotest  corner  of 
the  Archipelago,  the  United  States  are  conferring  upon 
them  a  strong  weapon  and  a  useful  tool. 


THE  FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES 


137 


It  is  an  ungracious  task  to  find  fault  with  a  scheme  so 
generous  as  that  of  the  United  States  for  the  education  of 


ftltftp  o^  0"  fotf-  A  YO)«WK) 


the  Filipinos.  The  writer  is  inclined  to  think  that  they 
themselves  are  largely  attracted  to  the  United  States 
by  the  prospect  of  these  educational  advantages,  and  that 


i38  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

they  will  take  every  opportunity  of  profiting  by  them. 
The  Filipinos  are  not  at  all  apathetic  or  stupid,  and 
they  are  as  eager  as  children  to  try  a  new  method  or 
hear  fresh  ideas.  The  danger  lies  in  their  cleverness 
and  sharpness,  and  in  the  desire  of  the  Americans  to 
have  everything  done  rather  sooner  than  immediately. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  first  few  years  of  enlight- 
ened teaching  will  turn  loose  upon  the  islands  a  mass 
of  half-educated,  conceited  natives,  proud  of  their  little 
knowledge  and  anxious  to  turn  it  to  account.  We  know 
the  class  well  in  India,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that,  if 
they  cannot  be  given  posts  to  keep  them  quiet,  they  will 
turn  their  attention  to  promulgation  of  sedition  or  other 
equally  undesirable  practices.  As  government  officials, 
however,  they  will  be  out  of  place,  and  so  will  become  an 
incubus  to  the  State  that  has  educated  them.  Those 
who  go,  as  many  doubtless  will,  to  complete  their  studies 
in  the  United  States,  will  supply  an  even  more  delicate 
problem,  for  will  they  be  contented  when  they  return 
after  tasting  the  freer,  wider  life  of  the  great  cities  of 
America?  True,  Filipinos  have  been  accustomed  to 
travel  in  Europe,  and,  after  long  residence  in  foreign 
countries,  have  returned  to  their  native  land  invariably 
imbued  with  republican  principles,  but  the  conditions 
were  different.  The  Filipino  in  the  United  States  will 
feel  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  land  of  the  Stars  and 
Stripes,  where  liberty  of  the  press,  universal  suffrage,  and 
many  other  blessings  of  an  advanced  democracy  are  his. 
On  his  return  he  will  feel  the  inferiority  of  his  position 
in  his  own  country,  where  he  is  not  permitted  to  hold 
this  or  that  post,  or  to  decide  certain  questions  for 
himself.  Political  agitation,  secret  sedition  —  these 
will  flourish  in  a  hotbed  such  as  will  arise  of  semi- 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  139 

educated,  unemployed  Filipinos  who  have  seen  what 
political  freedom  means,  and  whose  appetites  for  polit- 
ical license  have  been  whetted.  The  Spaniards  avoided 
this  pitfall  of  creating  a  large  class  of  office-seekers  by 
limiting  the  posts  open  to  Filipinos  to  those  which  no 
Spaniard  would  hold,  while  the  Friars,  in  keeping  down 
the  standard  of  education,  prevented  the  average  Filipino 
from  being  capable  of  anything  but  the  merest  clerical 
work.  A  minor  mistake  seems  to  have  been  made  in 
the  somewhat  wholesale  selection  of  teachers  for  the 
Philippines,  and  the  writer  is  convinced  that  not  only 
are  high  character  and  attainments  needed,  but  that 
they  ought  to  have  a  working  knowledge  of  the  dialect 
of  the  place  they  are  sent  to.  The  best  thing  that 
could  be  done  with  them  would  be  to  keep  them  at 
Manila  till  they  knew  something  of  the  people  and  lan- 
guage. Salaries  also  should  have  been  made  rather 
higher,  for  a  qualified  teacher  is  making  an  enormous 
sacrifice  in  many  cases  in  being  buried  in  one  of  the 
out-of-the-way  corners  of  the  Philippines,  and  unless  the 
remuneration  is  adequate  an  inferior  stamp  of  person 
will  be  obtained. 

What  applies  to  school-teachers  applies  to  every  class 
of  official  appointed  in  the  islands.  The  first  and  most 
important  step  is  the  creation  of  a  competent  and  incor- 
ruptible Civil  Service.  The  system  of  obtaining  office 
by  favour  is  one  that  must  be  checked  with  the  utmost 
rigour,  for  it  will  be  fatal.  Appointments  must  be  made 
by  examination  and  probation,  and  only  the  fittest 
chosen.  There  are  difficulties  —  not  insurmountable,  but 
still  considerable  —  in  the  way  of  an  efficient  Colonial 
Civil  Service  being  recruited  in  the  United  States,  and 
these  should  be  met  by  a  severity  of  tests  and  corre- 


i4o  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

spending  rewards  for  efficiency.  The  principal  difficulty 
is  the  lack  of  a  class  on  which  to  draw.  Great  Britain, 
who  prides  herself  justly  on  the  personnel  of  her  Civil 
Service,  has  the  advantage  of  possessing  a  class  with 
whom  that  service  has  become  a  tradition.  There  is  an 
inherited  tradition  in  scores  of  families  which  leads  them 
inevitably  to  send  the  best  of  their  brains  and  sinews  to 
do  this  work,  and  hereditary  instinct  gives  a  certain 
touch  in  dealing  with  the  problems  that  arise.  One  of 
the  traditions  is  that  of  absolute  incorruptibility,  and 
only  those  who  have  been  in  the  service  know  how  such 
a  tradition  stiffens  a  man's  back  in  the  numerous  petty 
temptations  that  arise.  Then  there  is  an  esprit  de  corps 
which  is  of  untold  service  to  lonely  youngsters  in  isolated 
posts,  and  lastly  there  is  the  nameless  something  that  an 
Englishman  gets  from  several  generations  of  ancestors 
who  have  been  accustomed  to  command,  to  'take  respon- 
sibility, to  make  sacrifices  to  duty. 

All  these  things  are  natural  advantages  accruing  to 
the  British  civil  servant  from  long  usage  and  tradition. 
His  United  States  cousin  has  to  make  his  own  tradi- 
tions and  invent  his  own  usages.  He  is  new  to  the 
work  and  does  not  understand  Orientals,  having  neither 
studied  them  at  first  hand  nor  grown  up  in  an  atmos- 
phere where  they  were  familiar.  He  will  be  exposed  to 
constant  temptations,  and  those  of  a  very  insidious  char- 
acter, by  a  people  trained  to  corruption  as  to  a  fine  art, 
and  in  many  cases  he  will  be  entirely  isolated  from  any 
of  his  own  race.  It  will  be  difficult  to  make  the  Civil 
Service  in  the  Philippines  sufficiently  attractive  to  draw 
the  best  men,  for  these  have  plenty  of  openings  in  the 
States,  and,  as  already  said,  there  is  no  family  tradition  to 
take  them  away  from  their  homeland.  The  British  Civil 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  141 

Service,  both  home  and  colonial,  gets  the  pick  of 
British  brains,  drawn  from  the  refined  and  educated 
classes.  The  United  States  Civil  Service  has  hitherto 
been  recruited  largely  by  favouritism  and  jobbery,  and 
has  consequently  attracted  few  of  the  better  class  of 
able  men.  Reforms,  however,  have  been  instituted,  and 
outside  the  Post  Office  nearly  all  appointments  are  now 
under  Civil  Service  law,  and  within  certain  protected 
classes  are  made  through  competition.  Enough  has 
been  said  to  show  how  necessary  every  precaution  is 
by  means  of  competition  to  ensure  thorough  efficiency 
in  the  Philippine  Civil  Service,  which  should  further- 
more be  made  attractive  by  good  salaries,  pensions,  and 
liberal  furloughs,  without  which  officials  cannot  maintain 
their  moral  or  physical  welfare. 

With  the  spread  of  education  it  will  be  necessary  to 
open  certain  posts  to  Filipinos,  which  must  be  done  with 
extreme  caution,  but  indeed  the  writer  finds  throughout 
this  dissertation  that  he  is  constantly  obliged  to  reiterate 
that  warning :  Go  slow !  don't  hurry !  Let  things  work 
out  gradually !  It  is  the  best  advice  that  can  be  given, 
for  there  is  no  short  cut  to  success. 

The  religious  question  is  one  which  must  be  touched 
on  in  passing.  Under  the  Constitution  it  is  impossible 
for  the  United  States  to  interfere  in  any  way  with 
religious  instruction.  The  schools,  hitherto  the  medium 
for  little  else,  will  henceforth  give  a  purely  non-religious 
education.  It  was  suggested  that  the  priests  should  be 
allowed  certain  hours  to  teach  and  catechise  in  the 
schools,  but  this  was  found  to  be  impracticable.  They 
will  therefore  be  obliged  to  give  all  their  teaching  of 
religion  at  Sunday-schools  or  special  classes.  The 
Filipino's  Christianity  is  a  thing  about  which  his  best 


i42  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

friends  disagree.  Some  say  it  is  deep  and  sincere, 
others  that  it  is  a  mere  matter  of  outward  show  and 
superstition.  One  of  themselves  makes  the  distinction 
that  they  are  not  so  much  religious  as  fanatical,  not  so 
much  Christians  as  Churchmen.  They  dwell  not  on  the 
part  of  religion  which  is  practical,  but  on  that  which  is 
fantastic,  and  they  believe  most  strongly  in  things  which 
to  many  Christians  are  unbelievable.  Their  old  idol- 
worship  has  survived  in  their  intense  superstition  as  to 
saints,  whose  wooden  images  they  practically  worship. 
Pilgrimages  to  shrines  are  much  in  favour,  and  the  Holy 
Child  of  Cebu  divides  public  popularity  with  Our  Lady 
of  Antipole.  The  Filipino  has  no  true  conception  of 
the  ethical  significance  of  a  pilgrimage,  and  usually  turns 
it  into  a  picnic,  but  his  belief  in  its  efficacy  in  getting 
him  what  he  wants  is  childlike  and  unquestioning.  The 
lower  classes  are  undoubtedly  far  more  influenced  by 
Christianity,  as  they  apprehend  it,  than  the  upper. 
Among  the  wealthy,  better-educated  Filipinos  indiffer- 
ence is  the  rule,  while  those  who  have  travelled  in 
Europe,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  fine  fleur  in  brains 
and  education,  are  almost  without  exception  free- 
thinkers. The  women  are  invariably  more  devoted  to 
the  Church  than  the  men,  and  they  were  long  in  throw- 
ing off  the  yoke  of  the  Friars.  Many  of  the  native 
priests  who  have  again  taken  up  their  parishes  are 
warmly  supported  by  the  women,  who  do  not  wish  to 
be  deprived  of  the  rites  of  the  Church.  In  many 
country  places  the  entire  population  seems  to  flock  to 
church  as  regularly  as  a  model  village  under  the  eye  of 
the  vicar's  wife.  Nevertheless  these  people,  outwardly 
devout,  are  usually  incapable  of  comprehending  the  doc- 
trines to  which  they  so  readily  assent,  and  their  know- 


THE   FUTURE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES  143 

ledge  of  Christianity,  gained  in  a  period  of  two  or 
three  years  in  schools  such  as  have  been  described,  is, 
to  say  the  least,  superficial.  A  great  many  old  pagan 
beliefs  and  customs  are  said  to  survive,  even  after 
centuries  of  Christianity,  and  these  have  a  hold  on  the 
people  that  their  religion  could  never  obtain. 

With  higher  education  will  come  an  increased  capac- 
ity for  appreciating  the  truths  of  Christianity,  but  it 
seems  unlikely  that  any  form  save  the  Roman  Catholic 
could  succeed  in  these  islands.  The  Friars  recognised 
the  tendency  of  their  converts  when  they  taught  them 
to  sing  the  Scriptures  —  the  only  way  in  which  they 
could  ensure  them  being  known  or  studied.  The 
music  and  ritual  are  essentials  to  attract  the  Filipino 
and  fix  his  attention,  and  even  with  these  there  has 
frequently  been  difficulty  in  persuading  him  to  come  to 
church,  and  we  read  of  corporal  punishment  inflicted 
on  delinquents.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  these  were  seldom 
women,  if  ever,  for  to  them  the  services,  feasts,  and  con- 
fessional were  the  only  variations  in  a  monotonous 
existence. 

It  remains  to  be  seen  what  can  be  effected  by  the 
personal  influence  and  example  of  disinterested  men, 
for  much,  both  in  the  erroneous  conceptions  and 
indifference  of  the  Filipinos,  was  owing  to  the  defects 
in  the  old  system  of  religious  teaching  and  to  the 
tyranny  of  the  Friars.  The  people  have  been  much 
struck  already  with  the  conduct  of  the  American 
priests  who  accompanied  the  army.  "  That  is  a  saint 
—  no  priest!  "  they  said  of  one.  "  He  goes  to  any  one 
who  sends  for  him,  ministers  to  sick  and  dying,  and 
asks  no  fee ! "  The  poor  Filipino  might  certainly  be 
forgiven  if  he  failed  to  appreciate  the  ethical  side  of 


i44  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

religion  when  he  knew  that  the  man  who  was  for 
him  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Christian's  God  would  mulct 
him  to  the  last  penny  for  every  rite  performed.  When 
marriage,  baptism,  and  burial  were  made  opportunities 
for  extortion  it  must  have  been  difficult  to  realise  their 
spiritual  significance. 

The  sudden  break  between  Church  and  State  will 
inevitably  affect  the  Filipino  deeply,  and  many  thought- 
ful people  are  inclined  to  believe  that,  suddenly  released 
from  all  religious  trammels  save  those  he  voluntarily 
assumes,  he  will  relapse  into  a  state  of  heathenism. 
The  well-known  tendency  of  the  Malay  is  to  revert 
—  to  return  to  his  former  state ;  and  this  will  be 
accelerated  in  religious  matters  by  the  fact  that  the 
majority  of  Americans  appear  to  them  absolutely 
irreligious  people.  The  distrust  of  the  Friars  will 
militate  against  children  being  sent  to  their  Sunday- 
schools,  and  the  little  ones  themselves,  precocious  with 
new  learning,  will  not  submit  to  be  taught  by  their 
ignorant  mothers  or  fathers.  They  will  observe  that 
their  teachers,  to  whom  they  look  up  as  patterns,  fre- 
quently do  not  attach  importance  to  attendance  at 
church,  do  not  confess  or  go  to  the  sacraments.  Even 
the  Roman  Catholic  teachers  will  have  a  very  different 
standpoint  from  which  to  regard  the  observances  of 
religion.  Thus  indifference  will  be  followed  by  con- 
tempt. The  only  thing  which  can  even  partially  prevent 
the  seeds  of  religious  indifference  from  being  widely 
sown,  and  from  developing  into  something  like  universal 
atheism,  will  be  a  renewed  effort  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  on  entirely  fresh  lines  —  in  reality,  mis- 
sion labours  of  the  most  arduous  and  self-sacrificing 
character. 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE  PHILIPPINES  145 

A  difficult  religious  question  is  involved  in  the  ques- 
tion of  how  the  Moros  must  be  treated,  for  these  people, 
by  their  religion  and  history,  are  quite  distinct  from  other 
Filipinos.  After  two  centuries  of  nominal  Christian  rule, 
these  Mohammedans  —  far  from  strict  or  fanatical,  it  is 
true,  and  in  many  cases  knowing  little  save  the  name  of 
the  Prophet  and  a  few  laws  as  to  fasting — are  still  wedded 
to  the  practices  of  that  religion  which  are  wholly  opposed 
to  the  tenets  of  either  their  former  or  present  masters. 
The  question  of  how  America  is  to  deal  with  these  people, 
whose  isolation  from  Spanish  influence  as  well  as  from 
religion  has  marked  them  off  strongly  from  any  other 
denizens  of  the  Archipelago,  is  extremely  interesting.  The 
administrative  problem  is  identical  with  that  presented  in 
the  Malay  States,  in  Java  and  Borneo,  while  in  the  mat- 
ter of  dealing  with  a  people  of  alien  creed  there  is  an  even 
wider  range  of  precedents  to  follow.  The  Moros  would 
be  best  governed  through  a  band  of  picked  men  given  a 
free  hand.  The  plan  of  devolving  certain  duties  and 
responsibilities  on  the  datos,  or  head  men,  is  not  only 
desirable,  it  is  inevitable.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  any- 
thing in  the  nature  of  self-government  can  be  conceded 
to  these  people,  accustomed  as  they  have  always  been  to 
autocracy,  and  incapable  as  they  are  of  realising  Western 
ideals  of  disinterested  patriotism  or  official  purity.  They 
will  presumably  be  included,  sooner  or  later,  in  the  scheme 
of  general  education,  and  then  other  difficulties  will  arise 
unless  they  are  governed  by  men  who  understand  them, 
and  unless  the  greatest  tact  is  exercised  in  dealing  with 
their  customs  and  prejudices.  Their  progress  will  be 
slow  and  by  no  means  sure,  and  meanwhile  they  cannot 
be  left  to  themselves,  or  be  expected  to  work  out  their 
own  salvation.  Experience  —  if  America  cares  to  profit 


146  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

by  it  —  shows  that  a  paternal  government  is  the  one  best 
suited  to  these  people,  because  they  understand  it  thor- 
oughly and  because  it  agrees  with  their  customs  and 
traditions.  Democracy  and  Mohammedanism  in  their 
extreme  forms  can  hardly  exist  together.  The  dato  may 
be  held  partly  responsible  for  the  condition  of  his  vil- 
lage, but  he  will  not  be  capable  of  organisation,  adminis- 
tration, or  indeed  of  any  function  except  the  preservation 
of  law  and  order  to  the  best  of  his  ability  by  his  own  in- 
fluence and  prestige.  The  success  with  which  the  dato 
meets,  when  he  is  the  right  sort  of  man,  illustrates  what 
has  been  said  about  paternal  government ;  but  both  he 
and  the  people  must  feel  that  he  is  but  a  deputy  father, 
and  that  there  is,  close  at  hand  and  easily  accessible,  a 
real  head  and  a  master,  a  final  court  of  appeal  on  whose 
justice  they  can  absolutely  rely.  The  experience  of  many 
men  who  have  acted  in  this  capacity,  maintaining  order 
and  administering  justice  (almost  without  any  backing 
in  the  way  of  force)  among  a  large  population  of  an  alien 
race  and  creed,  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words.  The 
White  Man  sitting  under  the  tree  is  to  the  native  the 
emblem  of  Truth,  Mercy,  and  Justice.  He  does  not  real- 
ise this  at  once,  of  course,  but  once  brought  home  to  him 
it  becomes  an  article  of  faith.  Let  him  come,  with  his 
wives,  his  cousins,  and  all  his  tribe  if  he  wishes.  Let 
him,  and  them,  squat  down  and  tell  at  whatever  length 
they  please  their  story,  their  difficulty,  their  grievance. 
When  all  is  finished  give  them  a  definite  decision,  telling 
them  the  grounds  on  which  it  is  based,  and  they  will  go 
away  satisfied  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten.  The  ventilation 
of  the  affair  will  be  a  consolation  in  itself,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  few  such  interviews  the  White  Man  acquires 
invaluable  knowledge  of  the  people  he  is  ruling.  Laws 


THE   FUTURE  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES  147 

and  taxes  must  be  explained  to  them  in  the  same  way  — 
a  simple  personal  explanation  and  a  firm  ipse  dixit.  This 
method  depends  so  much  upon  the  personal  equation  that 
it  undoubtedly  presents  difficulties,  but  those  difficulties 
are  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  confusion  which  will 
ensue  if  any  attempt  be  made  to  force  elective  or  admin- 
istrative functions  upon  people  who  have  neither  experi- 
ence nor,  judging  from  all  previous  history,  capacity  for 
either. 

The  Malay  States,  before  the  advent  of  the  British, 
were  split  up  into  innumerable  tribes,  many  at  war  with 
each  other,  and  there  was  neither  peace  nor  safety  in 
the  land.  Tyranny  and  corruption  were  rife.  Practi- 
cally the  same  state  of  affairs  existed  in  the  Philippines 
when  the  Spaniards  landed,  and  has  continued  in  the 
Moro  islands  until  the  present  day.  The  chief  Malay 
States  of  Borneo  (Brunei  and  Sarawak)  afford  an  inter- 
esting illustration  of  what  happens  in  a  native-governed 
State,  even  when  aided  by  foreign  advice,  and  in  a 
State  with  a  white  ruler,  absolute  and  beneficent.  The 
former,  originally  the  seat  of  all  power  in  Borneo,  to 
which  it  gave  its  name,  is  now  effete,  corrupt,  with  no 
influence ;  to  quote  the  forcible  words  of  one  who  knows 
it  well  (Hugh  Clifford),  it  "  smells  of  decay."  Sarawak, 
on  the  contrary,  since  the  time  when  the  noble  and  cour- 
ageous James  Brooke  first  took  it  in  hand,  with  no  par- 
ticular liking  for  the  job,  but  simply  because  he  felt  that 
he  —  perhaps  he  alone  —  could  rescue  the  people  from 
their  condition  of  warfare,  feuds,  and  barbarism,  has 
become  a  model  State.  Modern  education,  agricultural 
improvements,  and  all  the  blessings  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity, have  been  assured  to  its  people,  and  the  country 
is  financially  as  well  as  politically  flourishing. 


148  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

The  Moros  have  hitherto  been  favourably  impressed 
by  their  contact  with  the  United  States,  and  their 
islands  are  said  to  be  in  a  safer  condition,  and  more 
free  from  acts  of  robbery  and  violence,  than  ever  before. 
If  the  United  States  continue  in  the  path  indicated, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Jolo  archipelago 
may  become  as  flourishing  as  Sarawak. 

The  Moros,  however,  present  two  problems  with  which 
the  United  States  Government  will  have  to  deal  shortly. 
Slavery  and  polygamy  are  practised,  and  neither  can  be 
countenanced  in  a  territory  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 
It  is  more  a  matter  of  principle  than  of  reform,  for 
neither  system  is  subject  to  much  abuse  among  the 
Moros.  Slaves  are  well  treated,  and  indeed  are  on  a 
better  footing  than  many  domestic  servants.  Polygamy 
is  expressly  allowed  by  the  Prophet,  but  his  Malay  fol- 
lowers are  seldom  wealthy  enough  to  allow  themselves 
the  luxury  of  many  wives,  and  Malay  women  do  not 
suffer  behind  the  purdah  as  do  many  of  their  veiled 
sisters  in  other  lands.  Their  seclusion  is  of  the  most 
elementary  nature,  and  the  gray  mare  frequently  proves 
the  better  horse.  Despite  this  the  awkward  facts  re- 
main, and  the  United  States  will  have  a  problem  to 
solve  in  reconciling  their  own  position  on  both  questions 
with  the  ancient  and  established  usages  of  the  Moros. 

Another  problem,  and  one  which  affects  the  whole 
Archipelago,  is  that  of  taxation.  Space  forbids  any 
detailed  account  of  the  schemes  suggested  for  raising 
the  necessary  funds  for  even  part  of  the  administrative 
expenses,  but  it  must  be  remarked  here  that  the  Malay, 
as  a  race,  has  a  rooted  objection  to  land  taxation. 
Three  of  the  main  revenue  sources  of  the  Spanish  will 
not  be  revived,  namely  a  sort  of  poll-tax  called  the 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  149 

cedulas-personales,  —  a  certificate  of  identification  with 
which  every  one  had  to  provide  himself  yearly, — lot- 
teries, and  money-coining. 

The  taxation  of  land  becomes  a  necessity,  but  will 
have  to  be  introduced  with  the  most  careful  discrimina- 
tion, and  cannot  be  properly  enforced  for  a  considerable 
period  owing  to  the  confusion  which  prevails  as  to  land 
ownership,  lack  of  registration,  loss  of  title  deeds,  and 
the  general  chaos  resulting  from  a  three  years'  state 
of  war.  Many  districts,  too,  are  groaning  under  famine, 
owing  to  the  non-cultivation  of  the  land,  plagues  of 
locusts,  or  loss  of  cattle. 

The  treatment  of  Europeans  in  the  Philippines  is 
not  a  question  which  should  need  any  discussion,  but 
in  view  of  recent  expressions  of  opinion  in  the  States  it 
may  be  well  to  remark  that,  by  repudiating  concessions 
made  to  them,  by  tearing  up  their  agreements,  and  gen- 
erally doing  everything  to  drive  them  away  (as  has  been 
urged  in  certain  quarters),  the  interests  of  the  United 
States  would  not  be  advanced.  By  lessening  the  amount 
of  capital  already  invested  in  the  islands,  and  above  all 
by  shaking  general  confidence  in  their  dona  fides,  they 
would  materially  retard  progress.  It  is  only  by  the  lib- 
eral introduction  of  foreign  capital  that  the  Philippines 
can  be  developed,  and  this  must  be  accomplished  with- 
out interfering  with  the  rights  of  the  natives,  or  of  for- 
eigners who  have  interests  in  the  islands. 

The  Currency  question  is  another  problem  which  de- 
mands solution.  At  present  a  Custom  tax  of  ten  per 
cent,  on  all  Mexican  silver  has  been  imposed  to  maintain 
the  ratio  of  two  to  one.  There  seems  to  be  a  unanimous 
opinion  that  to  place  the  islands  on  a  gold  basis  imme- 
diately would  be  injurious  to  trade,  and  at  the  same  time 


150  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE  PACIFIC 

there  is  considerable  inconvenience  in  the  mixed  cur- 
rency, and  fluctuations  are  disturbing.  Legislation  has 
attempted  to  remedy  this  by  compelling  the  banks  to 
receive  American  money  at  two  to  one,  and  a  strong 
recommendation  which  will  probably  be  carried  into 
effect  is  that  a  national  bank  should  be  established 
under  United  States  laws,  with  an  ample  capital.  At 
present  the  most  important  banks  are  branches  of  the 
British  "  Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai "  and  "  Chartered  " 
banks. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  United  States  are  only  on  the 
threshold  of  the  difficulties  that  await  them  in  their  new 
phase  of  Oriental  expansion.  There  seems  to  be  a 
somewhat  general  impression  in  Great  Britain,  and  in 
English-speaking  communities  abroad,  that  the  Ameri- 
cans have  hitherto  met  with  little  success  in  dealing 
with  the  Philippines.  With  this  view  the  writer  cannot 
agree.  There  have  been  plenty  of  mistakes,  but  when 
we  consider  the  circumstances  under  which  the  United 
States  embarked  on  the  undertaking  —  the  novelty,  the 
absence  of  any  special  machinery,  and  the  peculiar  local 
conditions  —  it  must  be  allowed  by  an  impartial  critic  that 
much  has  already  been  accomplished.  The  man  on  the 
spot,  particularly,  has  acquitted  himself  on  the  whole 
very  well,  and  whatever  there  has  been  of  failure  has 
been  chiefly  due  to  the  politicians  and  sentimentalists 
at  home.  The  revival  of  the  insurrection  which  took 
place  in  the  autumn  of  1901  was  largely  due  to  the 
demand  that  troops  should  be  sent  home  and  the 
Philippines  made  over  (theoretically)  to  peaceful  self- 
government. 

Those  who  know  the  Filipinos  best,  those  who,  like 
the  writer,  have  had  experience  of  Orientals  and  how 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  151 

to  deal  with  them,  have  considerable  misgivings  as  to 
the  result  of  this  great  experiment  of  self-government 
unless  kept  under  due  guidance  and  check.  If  we  were 
to  judge  the  Filipinos  merely  by  professions,  by  phrases, 
by  words,  much  might  be  expected  from  them,  but  our 
anticipations  of  the  future  must  be  based  on  their  essen- 
tial character  and  the  performances  of  the  past.  Jeal- 
ousies, intrigues,  corruption,  the  ingrained  conviction 
that  every  office-holder  is  justified  in  squeezing  all  he 
can  —  the  man  who  did  not  would  in  their  opinion  have 
something  uncanny  about  him  —  these  are  not  promis- 
ing features  in  the  experiment.  It  will  take  them  some 
time  to  believe  that  the  Americans,  or  any  one,  can  be 
honest,  for  they  had  seen  nothing  else  in  their  Spanish 
officials  but  squeezing  to  the  utmost  limit. 

The  needful  thing  is  a  firm,  consistent  policy  to  be 
framed  and  carried  through  by  the  men  on  the  spot,  who 
are  at  all  events  aware  of  the  difficulties  in  the  path.  It 
would  have  been  far  better  to  have  from  the  outset  a 
definite  system  of  control.  Of  high-sounding  professions 
and  vague  promises  the  Filipinos  have  had  more  than 
enough,  and  what  was  desired  was  a  plain  and  precise 
engagement  from  the  United  States.  When  Civil  Gov- 
ernment was  being  discussed  and  explained  in  the  various 
islands,  there  was  a  tendency  to  defer  too  much  (out- 
wardly) to  the  opinion  of  the  local  Filipinos.  It  would 
have  been  better  to  say  frankly,  once  for  all,  "  We  have 
come  to  give  you  the  government  we  think  best  for  you, 
a  government  that  will  be  just  and  liberal,  but  a  govern- 
ment that  must  be  obeyed." 

What  is  now  wanted  is  not  further  statements  as  to 
the  actual  number  of  pagans  in  certain  districts,  or  the 
percentage  of  immorality  among  the  Friars,  but  experi- 


iS2  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

ence  and  judgment  in  dealing  with  matters  as  they  stand 
at  present.  All  the  information  which  can  be  had  by 
cross-examining  untruthful  witnesses  has  been  already 
collected,  and  the  bones  of  the  discussions  are  picked 
bare.  Let  America  make  up  her  mind  broadly  as  to  her 
future  relations  to  the  Archipelago,  and  then  let  her  put 
her  faith  in  the  men  who  have  already  devoted  so  much 
of  their  time  to  the  problem.  To  send  another  com- 
mission would  be  merely  to  increase  the  number  of  smat- 
terers.  The  best  authority  on  the  Philippines  at  present 
can  be  little  more,  but  he  knows  something,  and  he  is 
improving  every  day  he  spends  in  the  islands.  In  Judge 
Taft  America  has  a  man  thoroughly  capable  of  facing 
the  situation  if  supported  from  home.  He  cannot  per- 
form miracles,  and  he  is  bound  to  make  mistakes,  but  he 
is  open  to  conviction,  and  that  is  an  important  thing.  If 
given  anything  like  a  free  hand,  and  not  bothered  and 
harassed  by  congressmen,  or  reports  from  politicians 
who  have  taken  a  run  out  to  Manila  and  found  mares' 
nests,  he  will  do  very  well.  The  ideal  treatment,  one 
which  would  have  saved  trouble,  expense,  and  failure, 
would  have  been  a  temporary  military  government, 
gradually  merging  into  purely  civil  administration. 
This  is  apparently  judged  out  of  the  question,  owing 
to  the  sentimental  objections  of  the  electorate  in  the 
States,  which  is  so  anxious  not  to  hurt  the  feelings  of 
the  "  little  brown  brother."  This  being  the  case,  and  a 
system  having  been  inaugurated  of  quasi-independence, 
the  advice  of  an  onlooker  who  has  seen  a  good  deal  of 
government  in  Oriental  countries  is  to  interfere  as  little 
as  possible  with  the  customs,  prejudices,  and  religion  of 
the  Filipinos,  and  to  keep  a  tight  hold. 

The  selection  of  the  first  Governor-General  has  been  a 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES 


'53 


fortunate  one.  Judge  Taft,  who  has  won  golden  opin- 
ions from  every  side,  is  peculiarly  the  stamp  of  man  to 
deal  successfully  with  the  Philippines.  To  recall  such  a 
man,  even  for  the  purpose  of  consulting  him,  seems  to 
be  a  most  unwise  step,  for  the  chief  thing  to  impress  the 
Filipino,  and  —  what  is  more  important  —  the  chief 
means  of  evolving  order  out  of  chaos,  of  making  the 
Philippines  a  prosperous  country,  is  to  avoid  any  sign 
of  change,  and  especially  of  interference  with  the  man 
at  the  helm  —  swopping  horses  while  you  are  crossing 
the  stream  is  always  false  policy. 


THE   INDISPENSABLE   CARABAO   AND   CART 


GREAT   BRITAIN    IN   THE   PACIFIC 


AITS  Til 


A    SCENE   IN'    NEW    ZEALAND 

CHAPTER    VI 

THE    NEW    AUSTRALASIA 

IN  our  consideration  of  Great  Britain's  position  in  the 
Pacific  it  is  natural  that  we  should  give  the  first  place 
to  Australia,  albeit  that  continent  is  a  power  of  mush- 
room growth  compared  with  other  British  possessions. 
For  on  the  possibilities  of  this  newest  of  continents  de- 
pends very  largely  the  future  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
indeed,  as  the  writer  hopes  to  show,  the  forthcoming 
struggle  will  largely  take  its  colour  from  the  develop- 
ments in  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  Federal 
Commonwealth-  of  Australia,  both  democratic  Powers 
of  the  most  pronounced  character.  A  hundred  —  nay 
fifty  —  years  ago  such  a  condition  of  affairs  would  have 
seemed  beyond  the  realms  of  possibility.  We  have 
traced  briefly  the  course  of  exploration  and  discovery 
in  the  Pacific  up  to  the  time  that  Captain  Cook  explored 

'57 


158  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

the  east  and  north-east  coast  of  the  Terra  Australis  and 
hoisted  the  British  flag.  Dampier,  another  Englishman, 
had  visited  the  northwest  in  1688,  and  to  him  belongs 
the  honour  of  being  the  first  Englishman  to  set  foot  on 
Australian  soil ;  but  until  the  explorations  of  Captain 
Cook  little  interest  was  taken  in  the  new  continent,  and 
the  first  use  to  which  it  was  put  was  to  make  a  convict 
settlement  at  Port  Jackson,  on  the  coast  he  had  explored, 
presumably  on  account  of  its  immense  distance  from 
civilisation  and  isolation  from  all  other  European  colo- 
nies. It  was  not  till  a  few  years  later  that  Tasmania 
was  circumnavigated,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  systematic  coast  survey  began, 
which  lasted  for  some  forty  or  fifty  years  before  the 
coasts  could  be  considered  properly  charted,  so  vast  was 
the  area  to  be  examined.  Inland  exploration  began  in 
1813,  and  continued  more  or  less  steadily,  but  not  till 
1844  was  any  determined  effort  made  to  pierce  the 
interior. 

This  is  not  the  place  in  which  to  tell  the  story  of  Aus- 
tralian exploration  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  the  scrub-cov- 
ered plains  have  swallowed  their  victims  just  as  have 
the  sandy  deserts  of  the  Sahara,  and  that  in  pluck, 
enterprise,  and  endurance,  the  Australian  explorers  have 
equalled  those  of  any  other  region,  though  the  monotony 
of  the  country  and  lack  of  picturesque  material  for 
writing,  such  as  provide  African  travellers  with  end- 
less thrilling  adventures,  have  made  their  fame  more 
local  and  their  exploits  of  little  interest  to  the  outer 
world.  While  many  talented  men  have  given  their  lives 
to  the  task  of  exploring  darkest  Australia,  one  at  least 
must  be  mentioned  because  of  the  immediate  and  prac- 
tical value  of  the  journey  he  accomplished  without  the 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  159 

• 

loss  of  a  single  life,  and  because  to  him  belongs  the  dis- 
tinction of  making  the  first  journey  from  south  to  north 
by  unbeaten  tracks  right  through  the  heart  of  the 
continent.  In  1861  MacDonall  Stuart  left  Adelaide  and 
eight  months  later  reached  the  northern  coast,  at  the 
point  near  the  river  Adelaide  which  has  since  been  made 
the  starting-point  for  the  overland  telegraph.  This  jour- 
ney pointed  the  route  for  the  telegraph  line  from  south 
to  north,  which  by  means  of  the  cable  through  Java,  con- 
nects the  remotest  parts  of  Australia  with  the  outside 
world. 

It  is  well  known  that  for  quite  half  a  century  after  its 
coasts  had  become  fairly  familiar  to  Europe,  Australia 
was  regarded  as  a  country  of  no  worth  on  account  of  its 
arid  and  rainless  character.  In  1804  another  convict 
settlement  was  established  in  Tasmania,  and  apparently 
even  the  exquisite  climate  and  natural  advantages  of  that 
island  did  not  arouse  much  interest  in  the  mother 
country.  The  Tasmanian  settlers  had  to  defend  them- 
selves pretty  constantly  against  the  attacks  of  the  abo- 
rigines, who  were  rather  better  able  to  defend  their  rights 
than  the  Australian  natives. 

Thus  began  the  nineteenth  century  in  this  continent, 
and  before  going  any  further  it  is  necessary  to  describe 
briefly  the  nature  of  the  country  which  was  so  tardily 
settled  by  Europeans.  In  size  Australia  is  one-fifth  less 
than  Europe  and  about  the  size  of  the  United  States 
excluding  Alaska.  In  climate  it  presents  great  varieties. 
The  north  is  tropical,  almost  to  the  extent  of  being 
uninhabitable  for  the  white  man,  while  the  coasts 
of  the  east,  south,  and  west  enjoy  fine  and  healthy 
climates,  varying  in  the  degree  of  heat  during  the  sum- 
mer but  having  bracing  winters.  Snow  is  found  on 


160  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

the  mountains,  reaching  a  much  lower  level  than  in 
European  Alpine  regions.  Speaking  roughly,  Australia 
may  be  said  to  suffer  chiefly  from  sudden  changes,  alter- 
nate droughts  and  floods ;  the  former,  however,  being  the 
most  prevalent.  The  chief  mountain  range  skirts  the 
east  coast,  and  provides  a  watershed  for  rivers  flowing 
east  and  south,  of  a  size  and  importance  equal  to  the 
great  waterways  of  America,  but  on  the  west  the  rivers 
are  small  and  scarce.  The  centre  of  the  continent,  and 
a  vast  region  lying  to  the  west  of  the  centre,  is  an  almost 
impenetrable  desert  covered  with  thick  scrub,  through 
which  a  path  must  be  cut,  or  with  the  terrible  spinifex 
grass,  which  cuts  and  wounds  the  feet  of  men  and  beasts, 
and  is  too  much  even  for  the  patience  and  endurance  of 
camels. 

The  proportion  which  this  uninhabitable  and  useless 
land  bears  to  the  whole  is  almost  impossible  to  estimate, 
for,  besides  the  areas  covered  with  the  intractable  growths 
already  mentioned,  there  are  others,  equally  barren,  which 
might  be  improved  by  irrigation.  In  such  a  riverless 
country  this  seemed  hopeless ;  but  the  geological  forma- 
tion of  Australia  pointed  to  the  possibility  of  obtaining 
water  by  means  of  artesian  wells,  and  this  has  been  suc- 
cessfully tried.  With  canals  and  the  scientific  utilisation 
of  the  head-waters  of  rivers  before  they  become  absorbed, 
much  of  the  land  now  set  aside  as  useless  may  be  utilised 
for  pasture  and  agricultural  purposes. 

Australia,  therefore,  in  the  early  part  of  the  century, 
was  a  mystery,  and  one  which  promised  little  as  the 
guerdon  for  unriddling.  People  at  home  heard  of  the 
hot  scorching  winds  which  blew  from-  the  interior,  of 
the  droughts,  of  the  wild  and  repulsive  race  who  inhabited 
the  land,  and  they  thought  it  a  good  dumping-ground  for 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA 


161 


their  criminals  —  and  that  was  all.  .Nevertheless,  the 
not-to-be-repressed  colonising  spirit  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race  was  at  work,  and  little  bands  of  men  found  their 
way  to  the  new  country. 

If  the  theory  of  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  the 
subject  is  to  be  believed,  these  were  not  the  first  of  Cau- 


AUSTRALI, 

Ak 

7»i  <<? 

fSOUTH  W 

^Wo ,»'-'..  v/< 

/^^•1"r<1^, 
^X  VvioTo^  :./ 


^.veicoasr 
MSydney 


^* 


Mel hoii  riio 

—  C.  Howe 


X/ii/j  /  jffl  /?«»«  5fr. 

**  9fu.rneaux  In 

^TASMANIA 


RAINFALL  MAP  OF  AUSTRALIA 


casian  stock  who  had  set  foot  on  these  shores.  Aus- 
tralia was  already  peopled  with  aborigines  who,  although 
considered  among  the  lowest  in  the  human  scale,  have 
affinities  with  our  own  race  more  clearly  marked  than 
with  either  the  Mongolian  or  Negroid.  So  early,  how- 


162  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

ever,  must  have  been  the  period  at  which  these  people 
were  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  that  they  had 
none  of  the  arts  found  among  other  primitive  races, 
such  as  building  proper  shelters  (their  huts  being  of  a 
most  temporary  and  elementary  nature),  making  pottery, 
or  working  metals.  In  appearance  they  are  most  unpre- 
possessing, with  skin  dark,  though  never  sooty  black, 
hair  curled  but  not  frizzled  (two  characteristics  which 
distinguish  them  alike  from  negroes  and  Papuans),  while 
their  noses  are  long,  straight,  and  narrow  at  the  root, 
their  eyebrows  prominent,  their  figures  meagre  but  in- 
clined to  corpulency,  and  they  display  the  absence  of 
calf  noticeable  among  all  primitive  and  degenerate 
people.  Among  their  distinguishing  features  are  the 
extremely  low  position  of  their  women,  who  are  horribly 
maltreated  and  have  not  the  vestige  of  a  right;  their 
respect  for  the  law  of  property,  which,  with  a  horror  of 
consanguineous  marriages  seems  to  be  their  only  moral 
sense  (both  probably  the  unconscious  evolution  of  cen- 
turies of  lawless  living) ;  and  their  practice  of  cannibal- 
ism in  its  most  horrible  form,  since  children  have  been 
known  to  be  eaten  by  their  fathers  when  other  animal 
food  was  scarce.  Their  only  occupation,  diversion,  and 
raison  d'etre  is  the  search  for  food,  which  they  obtain 
from  all  sources  —  game,  fruits,  fish,  roots,  bark,  reptiles, 
insects,  and  indeed  almost  everything  animal  or  vege- 
table. They  practise  no  agricultural  arts  and  depend 
entirely  upon  nature  for  sustenance,  moving  from  place 
to  place  according  to  the  seasons. 

These  people  are  decreasing  in  numbers,  and  although 
efforts  have  been  made  in  some  parts  to  tame  and  civil- 
ise them,  and  individual  cases  are  quoted  of  natives 
who  have  shown  characteristics  worthy  of  preservation, 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  163 

it  is  generally  conceded  that  they  serve  no  useful  pur- 
pose, and  that  the  European  does  them  no  injustice 
in  utilising  the  country  which  they  merely  denude  to 
provide  their  material  wants.  Nevertheless,  this  race, 
whose  antiquity  must  exceed  that  of  almost  any  other  on 
the  face  of  the  globe,  may  outlive  another  of  the  same 
stock  and  a  much  higher  grade  —  the  Maoris,  of  whom 
an  account  will  be  given  in  the  description  of  New  Zea- 
land—  for  the  degenerate,  nomadic  "black  fellows,"  as 
they  are  termed,  can  live  in  a  country  impossible  to  the 
white  man,  and  so  will  continue  to  wander  over  the 
interior  of  the  continent  unmolested  for  some  time  to 
come. 

Such,  very  briefly,  were  the  physical  and  climatic  con- 
ditions and  the  aborigines  of  the  continent  of  Australia, 
and  we  have  seen  already  that  for  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  European  settlers,  who  seventy 
years  ago  amounted  to  only  some  80,000,  20,000  being 
convicts,  did  little  more  than  fix  their  dwellings  on  some 
of  the  more  convenient  spots  on  the  coast,  where  they 
lived  an  entirely  pastoral  life. 

By  the  year  1840  the  principal  settlement  of  New 
South  Wales  had  achieved  a  certain  degree  of  pros- 
perity, and  succeeded  in  preventing  the  further  trans- 
portation of  convicts  to  her  limits,  which  at  that  time 
practically  included  the  whole  eastern  side  of  Australia. 
In  1851  the  discovery  was  made  which  was  so  largely  to 
influence  the  history  of  the  continent  —  gold  was  found 
near  Bathurst.  An  immediate  rush  of  colonists  ensued, 
and  in  the  same  year  a  second  era  was  marked  by  the  sep- 
aration of  the  southernmost  part  of  the  colony  under  the 
name  of  Victoria.  The  north  was  separated  eight  years 
later  and  took  the  name  of  Queensland.  The  colony  of 


1 64  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

South  Australia  had  been  founded  some  time  previous 
to  this,  in  1836,  by  emigrants  sent  out  by  the  South 
Australian  Colonisation  Association,  and  was  never  used 
as  a  convict  station.  Its  title  is  quite  delusive,  as  it  prac- 
tically includes  the  whole  of  the  centre  of  Australia,  and 
not  only  the  south.  Western  Australia  was  occupied 
at  the  end  of  1825  by  a  small  body  of  soldiers  and  con- 
victs, hurriedly  sent  there  to  prevent  the  suspected  designs 
of  France  upon  that  part  of  the  coast.  By  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  the  colony  had  prospered  so  little  that  a 
request  was  made  for  convicts,  just  at  the  time  that 
New  South  Wales  had  succeeded,  after  nearly  com- 
ing to  a  rupture  with  the  Home  Government,  in  exclud- 
ing them.  In  1868  the  transportation  system  ceased 
altogether. 

The  story  of  the  gold  rush  of  the  fifties  and  sixties  is 
too  familiar  to  need  repetition.  Australia,  while  still 
ranking  high — :  indeed  third  —  among  the  gold-produc- 
ing countries  of  the  world,  has  fortunately  other  resources, 
and  is,  moreover,  in  many  parts  a  true  white  man's 
country,  so  that  the  phenomenon  we  have  to  deal  with  is 
not  that  of  some  mining  centres  —  rapid  development, 
and  then  stagnation  or  equally  rapid  decay.  Australia's 
growth  has  been  so  extraordinary  that  her  history  is 
almost  like  a  fairy  tale.  The  gold  rush  did  much 
towards  bringing  in  capital  and  population,  but  she  has 
a  surer  and  more  permanent  source  of  prosperity,  and 
it  is  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  Britons  were  able  to  settle 
on  the  soil  that  she  owes  her  present  position.  At  the 
present  time  the  wealth  of  the  country  is  estimated  at 
^"78,000,000,  of  which  pastoral  accounts  for  ,£30,000,000, 
agriculture  ^28,000,000,  and  mining  ^"20,000,000.  The 
three  sources  of  wealth  are,  moreover,  distributed  pretty 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  165 

equally  in  all  the  States.  The  population  is  three  and 
a  quarter  millions. 

It  is  not  the  writer's  intention  to  describe  in  detail 
any  part  of  this  vast  continent,  since  that  would  be  a 
work  of  supererogation  in  view  of  the  many  lucid  and 
exhaustive  accounts  which  are  at  the  disposal  of  every 
reader.  The  genesis  of  the  various  States  has  been 
mentioned,  and  the  writer  can  only  permit  himself  a 
rapid  glance  over  the  chief  characteristics  of  each. 

First  comes  New  South  Wales,  the  northern  State, 
justly  proud  of  her  exquisite  harbour  in  which  nestles 
Sydney,  famous  among  the  beautiful  cities  of  the  world ; 
of  her  varied  scenery,  with  mountains  and  romantic  river 
gorges  in  one  part  and,  in  another,  vast  rolling  plains 
where  feed  her  countless  flocks ;  of  her  vineyards  and 
orangeries  crowning  the  sheltered  slopes  of  her  curious 
walled-in  valleys,  such  as  was  the  hiding-place  of  the 
redoubtable  Captain  Starlight;  of  her  race-course;  of 
her  fine  buildings  and  many  other  features  of  which  any 
State  might  boast.  New  South  Wales  has,  indeed,  a 
goodly  heritage. 

Smallest  of  all  the  States  is  Victoria,  divided  by  a 
range  of  mountains,  with  splendid  forests,  grand  and 
romantic  scenery  made  impressive  by  the  extinct  peaks 
of  volcanoes.  Although  gold,  the  magnet  which  first 
drew  men  to  her,  still  remains  the  principal  source  of 
wealth,  there  is  a  considerable  area  used  for  pasturage, 
and  the  timber  is  some  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  Mel- 
bourne, perhaps  the  finest  city  in  Australia,  the  ninth 
in  importance  in  the  British  Empire,  and  one  of  the  best 
built  in  the  world,  is  distinguished  not  only  by  its  splen- 
did buildings,  fine  streets,  parks,  botanical  gardens,  observ- 
atory, and  good  water  supply,  but  by  the  encouragement 


1 66  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

given  to  education,  literature,  and  art.  The  Melbourne 
University  ranks  high,  there  are  numerous  scholarships, 
and  the  artistic  and  musical  life  of  the  city  are  its  pride 
and  joy. 

To  South  Australia  belongs  the  distinction  of  having 
equipped  the  expedition  which  pioneered  the  route  for 
the  telegraph  from  south  to  north.  The  execution  of 
this  work  is  a  great  credit  to  the  State,  which  is  perhaps 
not  so  flourishing  financially  as  others.  Much  of  the 
enormous  area  it  covers  is  useless  scrub,  much  more  will 
yet  be  reclaimed  by  the  boring  of  artesian  wells.  Mean- 
while Adelaide,  the  capital,  is  a  model  city,  surrounded 
by  a  belt  of  green  parks  through  which  one  walks  to 
reach  the  suburbs.  South  Australia  suffers  from  the 
hot  winds  which  blow  from  the  central  deserts. 

Queensland,  the  youngest  colony,  lies  half  within  the 
tropics,  and  its  northern  parts  are  trying  to  the  white 
man.  The  long  coast-line  is  dotted  with  beautiful  coral 
islands,  and  the  Great  Barrier  reef  stretches  almost  the 
whole  length  of  it.  Besides  the  coast-district,  rich  and 
varied,  and  having  a  heavy  rainfall  in  the  north,  there 
are  large  pastoral  areas,  but  behind  these,  and  stretching 
away  into  the  mysterious  interior,  is  the  Never-Never 
Land  of  thick  monotonous  scrub.  Brisbane,  the  capital, 
is  a  handsome  town,  and  has  a  viceregal  lodge  celebrated 
as  one  of  the  best  in  any  English  colony. 

The  settled  part  of  Western  Australia  is  at  present  a 
mere  fringe  on  the  desert,  and  yet  it  possesses  many  nat- 
ural advantages.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  the  best  in 
the  continent,  and  Perth  is  a  pleasant  town  situated  on 
a  fine  river,  and  with  good  convict-built  roads  and  public 
buildings.  The  sandy  wastes,  so  distressful  to  the  agri- 
culturist, are  in  spring  covered  with  gorgeous  flowers, 


AUSTRALIAN    BUSH    SCENERY 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  167 

but  the  crying  need  on  the  uplands  and  in  the  mining 
centres  is  water.  Reference  will  be  made  hereafter  to 
the  ambitious  schemes  for  supplying  this  deficiency. 
From  this  part  of  the  continent,  somewhat  paradoxically, 
come  the  finest  and  largest  trees,  equal  to,  and  even 
exceeding  in  size,  the  giants  of  California  and  Canada. 

Last  of  all  comes  Tasmania,  that  lovely,  unfortunate, 
island  —  unfortunate  because  despite  every  gift  of  na- 
ture, an  exquisite  climate,  mountain  scenery  hardly  to 
be  surpassed,  and  a  beautiful  coast;  despite  fertility, 
the  presence  of  minerals  and  many  other  advantages, 
prosperity  has  tarried  on  her  way,  and  will  not  fling 
her  riches  into  Tasmania's  lap.  Nevertheless,  life  must 
be  pleasant  in  this  fairest  of  islands,  and  one  feels  regret 
that  the  coming  of  the  white  man  should  have  been  so 
fatal  to  the  aborigines,  who  have  entirely  died  out.  They 
appear  in  many  things  to  have  been  superior  to  the 
Australian  aborigines  and  probably  belonged  to  a  dif- 
ferent race.  Their  country  has  not  only  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  white  man,  but  is  becoming  more  and  more 
English  in  appearance.  English  country-houses,  gardens, 
fields,  hedges  —  all  combine  to  produce  an  effect  which 
is  almost  incredible  when  we  realise  that  England  and 
Tasmania  are  as  wide  apart  as  they  well  can  be. 

Of  the  extremely  interesting  zoology  and  botany  of 
Australia  there  is  no  space  here  to  write,  nor  is  an 
amateur  justified  in  dwelling  on  these  subjects  so  ably 
handled  by  experts,  but  if  any  one  has  not  thought  it 
worth  while  to  give  a  few  hours  to  the  subject,  let  him 
pick  up  a  handbook  and  read  therein  of  birds  who  make 
bowers,  and  terraces  round  trees,  decorating  them  with 
flowers  and  feathers;  of  the  curious  creature — a  sort 
of  link  between  mammalia  and  reptilia  —  which  lays 


1 68  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

eggs  and  hatches  its  young  and  then  suckles  them, 
being  itself  a  flat  four-footed  animal  with  a  species  of 
beak  and  no  teeth ;  of  a  bird  which  builds  mounds  fifteen 
feet  high,  in  which  it  buries  its  eggs ;  and  of  the  peculiar 
habits  of  the  marsupials.  As  for  flowers,  Australia 
is  rich  indeed  in  these ;  before  he  lands,  the  visitor 
to  Sydney  can  see  the  flame  trees  on  the  hills  behind 
shining  like  fire,  while  the  beautiful  eucalyptus,  the 
curious  orchids,  and  characteristic  pitcher-plants  are  all 
as  interesting  as  they  are  beautiful.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  Australian  fauna  and  flora  are  a  distinct  group, 
and  though  they  have  affinities  in  other  parts  of  the 
globe,  not  only  many  of  the  species  but  the  genera  of 
both  are  more  or  less  peculiar. 

Until  the  year  1901  the  States  of  Australia,  having 
one  by  one  achieved  responsible  government  (Queensland 
never  knew  any  other),  were  under  the  British  crown 
as  autonomous  colonies.  Their  governments  were  all 
modelled  on  the  same  plan,  and  consisted  of  a  Governor, 
nominated  by  the  Crown,  and  two  Chambers,  one  called 
the  Council  (in  most  of  the  colonies  nominated  by  the 
Governor)  and  the  other  a  representative  assembly 
elected  by  the  people.  The  franchise  is  practically  on 
a  manhood  suffrage,  except  in  Tasmania,  where  there 
is  a  property  qualification.  In  South  Australia  the 
franchise  has  been  extended  to  women,  while  in  Queens- 
land the  principle  of  "one  man,  one  vote"  will  shortly  be 
introduced  into  the  electorate  system.  This  is  the  only 
colony  where  a  large  number  of  aliens  is  found. 

Victoria,  the  most  democratic  of  the  States,  elects 
both  her  Houses.  South  Australia  and  Tasmania  pay 
the  members  of  both  Houses  the  sums  of  £200  and 
£IOQ  per  annum  respectively,  while  New  South  Wales, 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  169 

Victoria,  and  Queensland  pay  ^300  per  annum  to  the 
members  of  the  Lower  House  only,  and  Western  Aus- 
tralia pays  nothing  at  all.  Under  the  new  constitution 
there  is  a  Federal  Executive  Council  presided  over  by  a 
Governor-General  appointed  by  the  Crown.  There  are 
two  Houses :  the  Senate  consisting  of  members  from 
each  colony,  elected  for  six  years;  and  the  House  of 
Representatives,  which  consists  of  members  elected  from 
each  colony  in  proportion  to  the  population,  with  a  mini- 
mum of  five.  The  franchise  is  on  the  basis  existing 
already  in  each  colony,  and  the  members  of  both  Houses 
are  paid  at  the  rate  of  ,£400  per  annum.  Although  the 
Federal  Parliament  is  supreme  there  are  various  safe- 
guards for  the  private  interests  of  each  colony.  For 
instance,  the  Federal  Government  cannot  make  railways 
through  a  colony  without  its  permission.  The  right  of 
appeal  to  the  Privy  Council  in  matters  affecting  the 
Constitution  was  a  question  long  debated  and  fought 
over  in  the  mother  country.  Eventually  the  Australians 
carried  their  point,  and  the  judgment  of  the  High 
Court  is  considered  final,  though  it  reserves  the  power 
to  appeal,  if  deemed  desirable.  Excise  and  Customs 
duties  will  be  taken  over  by  the  Federal  State  after  two 
years,  and  a  uniform  system  of  tariffs  applied,  while  in- 
tercolonial traffic  is  to  be  free. 

So  far,  it  will  be  noticed,  nothing  has  been  said  of 
New  Zealand,  although  those  islands  are  usually  brack- 
eted with  the  continent.  The  reason  is  that  New  Zea- 
land must  be  regarded  quite  by  herself,  for  neither 
physically  nor  historically  can  she  be  considered  as  part 
of  Australia. 

The   two   long-shaped  islands  with  a  small  pendant 


170 


THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 


known  as  New  Zealand  are  regarded  by  scientists  as 
being  among  the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest,  islands  on  the 
face  of  the  globe.  At  some  extremely  remote  period 
they  attained  their  present  isolation,  and  from  that  time 
to  this  they  have  retained  certain  peculiarities  in  their 
zoology  and  botany  which  mark  them  out  from  the  rest 
of  the  world.  The  flora  is  to  a  great  extent  peculiar  and 
lacking  in  the  most  widespread  characteristic  species 
found  to-day  in  Australia,  while  the  characteristic  mam- 


A   NEW    ZEALAND    RIVER 


mals  of  that  continent  are  missing,  and  indeed  mammals 
of  any  sort  are  not  indigenous  to  New  Zealand.  These 
facts  alone  prove  the  long-continued  isolation  of  the  lat- 
ter, and  in  the  case  of  the  bird  life,  which  is  naturally  more 
easily  transplanted,  the  same  phenomena  are  largely  re- 
peated. One  of  the  curiosities  of  New  Zealand  is  the 
wingless  bird,  with  feathers  like  hairs,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  evolved  in  the  course  of  many  centuries  because 
of  the  scarcity  of  mammals,  which  enabled  it  to  seek  its 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA 


171 


food  on  the  ground.  Enormous  specimens  of  this  bird 
have  been  found  in  the  fossil  state,  but  only  a  small 
species  survives. 

New  Zealand,  too,  was  not  peopled  by  the  same  abo- 
riginal race  as  Australia  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by 
the  white  man,  but  was  the  home  of  a  branch  of  that 
ancient  Caucasian  race  which  ages  ago  found  its  way  to 
the  Pacific  and  is  known  as  the  Polynesian.  In  New 
Zealand  they  are  called  Maoris,  and  here,  in  a  fine  cli- 
mate and  a  beautiful  country,  they  had  attained  to  a  per- 
fection of  form  and  a  height  of  civilisation  unequalled 
among  savage  people.  Their  clothing  was  beautifully 
worked,  their  houses  decorated  with  elaborate  carvings, 
they  had  many  utensils  and  weapons  made  of  metal  and 
elaborately  worked.  Their  character  has  won  them 
much  admiration  and  regard,  while  their  light  colour, 
good  features,  and  graceful  figures  make  them  compare 
favourably  with  any  race.  Withal  they  had  no  written 
language,  did  not  know  the  art  of  making  pottery,  and 
were,  like  the  majority  of  Polynesians,  cannibals.  It  is 
possible  that  these  people  may  have  assimilated  another 
race  of  still  greater  antiquity,  since  traces  of  darker  skin 
and  frizzled  hair  are  to  be  seen.  They  do  not  seem  able 
to  survive  contact  with  the  white  man.  Everywhere  in 
the  Pacific,  from  Hawaii  and  Easter  Island  to  New  Zea- 
land (roughly  speaking,  a  triangle  which  includes  the 
principal  Polynesian  islands),  they  are  dying  out  with 
more  or  less  rapidity.  This  is  not  only  due  to  the  dis- 
eases and  vices  which  the  white  man  brings  with  him. 
All  witnesses  agree  that  the  Polynesian  droops  and  flags 
under  European  contact  and  control,  losing  his  zest  in 
life.  May  it  not  be  that,  aroused  from  his  long,  happy 
childhood  of  irresponsible  carelessness,  and  brought  face 


172 


THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 


to  face,  however  gently,  with  the  modern  problems  of 
existence,  this  true  child  of  Nature  loses  heart,  has  not 
the  courage  to  face  this  new  world  of  knowledge  and 
its  incumbent  responsibilities? 

Besides  its  peculiar  fauna,  flora,  and  native  inhabitants, 
New  Zealand  possesses  a  climate  and  physical  ,charac- 
teristics  quite  different  to  that  of  Australia.  There  is 
naturally  a  great  variety  of  climate  in  islands  which 
extend  over  such  an  area,  but  on  the  whole  there  are 


A    NEW    ZEALAND    GARDEN 


few  extremes,  being  mild  and  bracing,  with  an  abun- 
dant rainfall  and  windy  coasts.  Every  traveller  is  struck 
by  the  extremely  English  appearance  of  the  landscape, 
and  this  increases  year  by  year  as  English  plants,  shrubs, 
and  grass  are  introduced  and  eat  up  the  native  growths. 
Of  all  the  beautiful  islands  of  the  globe,  even  Japan  and 
Java  are  not  more  beautiful  than  New  Zealand,  with  its 
great  masses  of  fern,  rolling  plains,  beautiful  rivers,  and 
background  of  mountains  often  snow-clad.  The  North 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  173 

island  may  be  briefly  described  as  consisting  first  of  fer- 
tile well-watered  valleys  and  second  of  gently  sloping 
hill  ranges,  with  low-lying  tablelands.  The  scenery  is 
broken  by  volcanic  peaks  like  that  of  Java,  and  through 
the  centre  of  the  island  run  hot  springs  and  wells.  From 
the  narrow  strait  between  the  islands  can  be  seen  the 
majestic  pile  of  Mount  Egmont,  an  almost  perfect  cone, 
capped  with  snow  and  rising  to  over  eight  thousand  feet. 
The  South  island  has  on  its  west  a  high  mountain  range, 
where  the  dweller  on  the  coast  after  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer can  betake  himself,  and  refresh  his  soul  amid 
grand  snowfields,  glaciers,  and  snow-clad  peaks.  Moun- 
tain streams  rush  down  through  picturesque  ravines, 
and  water  the  slopes  which  sink  in  terraces  towards  the 
east  coast.  It  must  be  noticed  that  there  is  none  of 
the  wide,  flat  country  which  is  at  once  the  bane  and  the 
blessing  of  Australia,  including  as  it  does  splendid  pas- 
ture-lands and  hopeless  deserts.  Neither,  in  consequence, 
are  there  hot  winds  and  tropical  summers,  nor  tropical 
flowers  and  forests.  The  characteristics  of  New  Zealand 
are  the  masses  of  fern  and  the  park-like,  grassy  slopes. 

Such  was  the  country  which  in  1840  became  the  prop- 
erty of  Britain.  Before  that  date  it  had  been  merely  the 
Alsatia  of  Australia.  Besides  a  motley  crowd  of  more 
or  less  ne'er-do-wells,  and  worse,  there  were  only  a  handful 
of  missionaries  and  a  few  whalers  and  traders  in  New 
Zealand  to  represent  Europe.  At  the  time  of  the  acces- 
sion of  Queen  Victoria  little  was  known  of  the  country 
save  for  its  reputation  in  Australia  as  harbouring  her 
outcasts,  and  it  was  not  till  1839  that  a  party  of  emi- 
grants was  actually  sent  out.  It  was  the  formation  of  a 
French  Company  under  Louis  Philippe  for  its  acquisi- 
tion which  led  to  steps  being  taken  to  forestall  the 


174  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

French  and  place  New  Zealand  under  the  British  flag. 
It  is  said  that  these  steps  were  only  just  taken  in  time, 
and  that  a  few  days  more  would  have  made  New  Zea- 
land a  French  possession. 

Besides  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  possibilities  of 
the  country  thus  barely  saved  to  Britain,  there  is  an  out- 
put of  gold  which  rivals  that  of  the  richest  States  of 
Australia,  and  this  at  one  time  drew  a  certain  number  of 
miners  from  that  continent.  But  with  few  exceptions  all 
the  colonists  came  straight  from  the  mother  country,  and 
while  forming  one  of  the  most  advanced  democracies  in 
the  world  have  retained  a  very  large  proportion  of 
their  national  characteristics.  It  is  said  by  a  distin- 
guished New  Zealander  that  he  and  his  people  speak 
with  the  same  accent,  wear  the  same  clothes,  read  the 
same  papers,  and  laugh  over  the  same  jokes  as  the  aver- 
age Briton  at  home,  and  at  the  same  time  may  be  seen 
in  New  Zealand  that  curious  provincialism,  noticeable 
also  in  Canada,  which  makes  one  place  Scotch,  with 
the  speech,  habits,  and  idiosyncrasies  of  the  northern 
race,  while  another  is  peculiarly  English,  and,  as  a  rule, 
of  the  Wessex  type,  which  every  Englishman  knows  is 
quite  different  to  the  Cockney  or  the  North  country. 
Australia,  on  the  contrary,  is  peopled  by  a  race  whose 
British  blood  is  undergoing  some  process  which  makes 
of  it  a  race  distinct,  apart.  The  Queenslander  and  the 
Victorian  may  have  points  of  difference,  but  to  the  ordi- 
nary observer  they  present  but  one  type  both  in  phy- 
sique, morale,  and  speech,  and  that  type  is  no  longer 
British  but  Australian  —  a  type  of  which  Britain  may 
justly  be  proud,  as  "  born  of  her  blood,"  but  in  which  she 
realises  the  working  of  a  new  force.  Speaking  generally, 
no  such  distinction  separates  the  New  Zealander  from 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  175 

his  English  and  Scotch  cousins.  I  have  said  little  of 
the  Irish  element  because  it  does  not  show  any  tendency 
to  segregate  itself,  but  disperses  throughout  the  whole 
with  (possibly)  an  amiable  desire  to  leaven  the  whole 
lump.  An  Irishman  is  at  home  everywhere  —  except 
in  Ireland.  Notwithstanding  the  affinity  between  New 
Zealand  and  the  old  country  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  the 
democracy  of  the  former  is  the  most  advanced  in  the 
world.  The  State  provides  advances  to  settlers,  old-age 


WELLINGTON:     NEW   ZEALAND 


pensions,  compulsory  arbitration,  Government  insurance, 
and  a  Public  Trust  department. 

All  these  circumstances  give  very  real  weight  to  the 
objections  which  have  prevented  New  Zealand  hitherto 
from  joining  the  Federation,  but  an  important  fact  is 
the  distance  of  New  Zealand  from  Australia.  It  looks 
small  on  the  map,  but  from  Sydney  to  Wellington  —  the 
shortest  route  —  takes  no  less  than  six  days,  being  a 
distance  of  1200  miles. 

Before  turning  to  the  many  problems,  social  and  politi- 
cal, which  face  the  newly  Federated  Commonwealth,  we 


176  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

must  glance  briefly  at  the  other  British  possessions  which 
have  been  grouped  for  convenience  sake  under  the  term 
Australasia.  It  may  be  said  here  that  they  owe  their 
importance  chiefly  to  their  position  between  Australia 
and  the  two  other  continents  with  Pacific  coasts. 

New  Guinea,  which  lies  directly  to  the  north  of  Aus- 
tralia, is  the  largest  island  in  the  world,  and,  although 
three  Powers  have  divided  it,  remains  to  a  great  extent 
still  unexplored.  It  is  regarded  as  the  cradle  of  the  black 
race  known  as  Papuan,  who  are  the  aborigines  of  a  num- 
ber of  the  island  groups  of  the  Pacific,  being  sandwiched, 
as  it  were,  between  the  Polynesians  on  the  east  and  the 
Malays  on  the  west.  The  Papuans,  though  extremely 
dark  of  skin,  have  many  characteristics  which  separate 
them  widely  from  the  Negroid.  Their  features  are 
marked,  with  prominent  eye-brows  and  long  hooked 
nose,  the  latter  being  rendered  more  remarkable  by  the 
habit  of  sticking  a  piece  of  bone  or  wood  through  the 
cartilage  between  the  nostrils.  In  character  the  Papuan 
is  lively,  excitable,  and  noisy,  extremely  fond  of  dancing, 
and  apparently  possessing  artistic  instincts,  since  he  dec- 
orates not  only  his  person  with  flowers  and  beads  but 
his  houses,  household  implements,  and  gods  with  well- 
executed  carving.  Some  tribes  are  notable  for  the  carv- 
ing they  bestow  on  their  praus,  but  the  average  Papuan  is 
not  a  water  lover,  and  cautiously  crawls  round  his  coasts. 
The  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  the  Papuan  is  his  hair, 
which  is  extremely  stiff  and  closely  frizzled ;  it  is  grown 
long,  made  to  form  an  immense  stiff  mass  standing 
straight  out  all  round  the  head,  and  is  decorated  in  vari- 
ous ways.  The  Papuans  vary  considerably  in  different 
parts,  and  have  been  modified  by  intermarriage  with 
Malays  and  Polynesians,  but  this  peculiarity  of  hair  is 


THE    NEW   AUSTRALASIA 


177 


said  to  be  always  constant.  Many  of  the  Papuans  are  still 
cannibals,  and  are  extremely  hostile  to  foreigners,  parts 
of  New  Guinea  being  still  considered  unsafe  for  white 
men  to  travel  through  without  protection.  Some  ex- 
traordinary customs  are  found  among  some  of  the  tribes, 
for  instance,  that  of  im- 
muring girls  in  cages,  kept 
inside  special  houses  for 
five  years,  from  the  age  of 
five  or  eight  until  they  are 
considered  marriageable. 
Though  only  taken  out 
once  a  day,  the  custom  is 
said  not  to  affect  their 
health.  There  are  tribes 
in  which  both  sexes  go 
totally  naked ;  others  dye 
their  hair  red  or  magenta 
—  a  custom  usually  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  the 
effete  practices  of  ultra- 
civilisation  ;  some  build 
round  houses  and  others 

conical  ones,  like  roofs  without  walls.  But  all  may  be 
roughly  generalised  as  savages  in  a  low  state  of  civili- 
sation, and,  although  some  investigators  are  inclined  to 
rate  their  intelligence  high,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
results  of  mission  labour  among  them  have  not  been  such 
as  to  warrant  a  very  sanguine  opinion  as  to  their  future. 
We  are  chiefly  concerned  with  them  as  possible  labourers, 
and  the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  importing  native 
labour  from  the  New  Hebrides  to  Queensland.  Opin- 
ions vary  as  to  the  moral  effect  of  compulsory  labour  on 


A    PAPUAN    CHIEF 


178  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

the  Papuan,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  is  against  it.  In 
any  case  the  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand,  and 
under  the  Exclusion  Act  all  coloured  labour  is  to  be 
stopped,  and  the  Papuan  would  be  fully  employed  in  his 
own  islands  if  he  could  only  be  elevated  to  a  higher  plane 
and  taught  the  arts  of  agriculture,  manufacture,  and  so 
forth. 

New  Guinea  is  extremely  mountainous,  containing 
peaks  of  10,000  to  13,000  feet,  the  highest  of  any  between 
the  Himalayas  and  the  Andes.  The  country  is  broken 
and  gashed  by  gorges,  and  the  scenery  in  many  parts  is 
imposing.  Each  of  the  three  territories,  British,  Dutch, 
and  German,  is  provided  with  large  rivers,  which  may  be 
useful  for  navigation  later  on,  but  are  at  present  too  little 
explored. 

The  history  of  New  Guinea  from  1829,  the  date  to 
which  we  have  already  traced  it  (when  a  small  Dutch 
settlement  at  Triton  Bay  was  given  up),  was  briefly  this. 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  explorers  charted  its  shores, 
tried  to  penetrate  its  rivers,  and  viewed  its  moun- 
tains; the  naturalist  Wallace  visited  the  north  coast, 
and  with  no  protection  save  his  Malay  servants  lived 
there  four  and  a  half  months ;  missionaries,  English 
and  Dutch,  established  themselves  in  the  south,  and  so 
great  was  the  fascination  of  this  isle  of  mystery  upon 
men  of  science  that  Russian,  German,  Italian,  and  Swiss 
travellers  visited  it.  In  1884,  when  the  scramble  for 
colonies  was  at  its  height,  Germany  and  France  began 
to  turn  their  eyes  towards  the  Pacific.  By  this  time  the 
youthful  colonies  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  usually 
somewhat  at  variance  about  matters  of  policy,  were 
united  by  a  common  grievance  —  the  refusal  of  the 
Home  Government  to  listen  to  their  request  for  protec- 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  179 

tion  against  the  immigration  of  Chinese.  A  scheme  for 
joint  action,  devised  in  1881,  was  under  consideration  at 
this  juncture,  when  the  German  Press  began  to  advocate 
the  annexation  of  the  whole  of  New  Guinea  and  further 
acquisitions  in  the  Pacific,  and  a  German  Company  was 
actually  founded  to  colonise  the  island.  So  convinced 
were  the  colonists  that  the  establishment  of  a  foreign 
Power  close  to  their  shores  would  be  fatal  to  their 
interests,  that  Queensland  sent  agents  to  take  possession 
in  the  name  of  Great  Britain,  an  action  which  met  with 
the  approval  of  all  the  other  colonies,  but  was  not  con- 
firmed by  the  Colonial  Secretary,  Lord  Derby.  Press- 
ure was  brought  to  bear  by  the  colonies,  who  urged  not 
only  the  annexation  of  New  Guinea,  but  the  prohibition 
of  convict  transportation  to  New  Caledonia  by  France, 
and  in  effect  the  entire  control  of  the  Western  Pacific 
by  Great  Britain.  These  demands  were  flatly  refused, 
but  the  action  of  Germany  in  seizing  part  of  Northern 
New  Guinea  while  these  negotiations  were  still  pending 
—  a  piece  of  very  sharp  practice  —  hastened  matters, 
and  the  Government  of  the  day  under  Mr.  Gladstone  at 
last  gave  way  so  far  as  to  consent  to  the  annexation  of 
the  southern  side  of  New  Guinea  nearest  to  Australia. 
A  line  was  drawn  on  a  map  showing  to  what  degree  of 
latitude  British  influence  should  extend.  The  delegates 
to  the  Colonial  Conference  of  1887  regarded  this  with 
some  astonishment  when  they  found  that  it  actually  cut 
off  the  southernmost  portion  of  the  island,  and  the  Louisi- 
ade  Archipelago,  its  continuation.  They  remonstrated 
with  the  Secretary  of  State.  "It's  no  use,"  he  replied, 
"  the  Old  Man  won't  budge  !  "  But  the  Louisiade  Archi- 
pelago was  even  more  incapable  of  budging,  and  the 
colonists  got  their  way  in  the  end.  It  is  usually  said 


i8o  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

that  the  desire  to  protect  the  natives  of  New  Guinea 
against  foreigners  was  the  chief  motive  for  British  an- 
nexation, but  the  true  reason,  as  has  been  shown,  was 
the  pressure  brought  to  bear  by  the  Australian  colo- 
nists, and  the  story  is  an  instructive  one  as  showing  the 
divergence  of  view  in  such  a  question  between  the  colo- 
nies and  the  mother  country.  Now  that  Australia  is 
practically  free  to  pursue  an  independent  policy  we  may 
expect  some  very  different  line  of  action.  The  New 
Guinea  question,  coupled  with  that  of  New  Caledonia, 
first  gathered  the  colonies  into  a  Federal  Council  and 
helped  greatly  to  pave  the  way  for  the  Commonwealth. 

The  Dutch  annexation  of  New  Guinea  was  character- 
istic. By  an  ancient  treaty  with  a  Malay  rajah  who 
ruled  in  one  of  the  adjacent  islands  of  the  Moluccas,  she 
acquired  a  protectorate  over  the  greater  part  of  Western 
New  Guinea,  which  was  nominally  subject  to  him. 
The  boundaries  were  undefined,  and  were  only  fixed  on 
the  British  and  German  occupation.  The  Dutch  side 
of  New  Guinea,  like  their  territory  in  Borneo,  is  the  best 
part  of  the  island,  with  good  harbours,  fertile  highlands, 
and  a  considerable  trade  with  the  islands  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago.  Germany  has  a  mountainous  and  rugged 
portion,  remote  from  any  civilised  port,  but  apparently 
valuable  to  her  as  a  pied-a-terre  in  the  Pacific,  and  a  sort 
of  base  for  her  smaller  and  more  scattered  possessions. 
The  British  portion  is  on  the  whole  low-lying  ground 
and  very  malarial.  The  climate  generally  is  extremely 
unhealthy,  the  excess  of  moisture  making  a  degree  of 
heat  which  is  tolerable  in  Northern  Australia,  but  quite 
insupportable  here.  The  true  value  of  New  Guinea 
lies,  no  doubt,  in  its  strategic  position,  but  the  soil  is 
very  fertile,  the  country  is  in  many  parts  covered  with 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  181 

virgin  forests,  and  there  are  also  believed  to  be  con- 
siderable stores  of  minerals,  whose  possibilities  cannot 
be  gauged  until  the  country  is  better  known.  The 
Dutch  are  quite  content  to  sit  still  in  their  territory  and 
permit  the  native  to  go  on  his  way  unmolested  so  long 
as  their  petty  trade  is  not  interfered  with.  New  Guinea 
is  perhaps  the  one  of  their  possessions  which  exhibits 
them  in  the  least  favourable  light,  probably  because  in  all 
the  others  they  had  to  deal  with  a  far  more  civilised 
race  than  the  Papuans,  and  one  that  could  not  so  well  be 
left  alone. 

The  capital  of  the  British  territory  is  Port  Moresby, 
which  possesses  a  good  harbour,  and  is  said  to  be 
healthier  than  most  of  the  coast.  In  appearance  it  is 
rather  forlorn,  being  treeless,  surrounded  by  barren 
plains,  and  having  a  very  insufficient  water  supply.  The 
only  regular  steam-communication  is  from  Sydney  to 
Port  Moresby  and  back  by  the  Solomon  Isles,  and  the 
whole  of  the  import  and  export  trade  is  only  a  little  over 

;£  I  OO,OOO. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  British  possession  in  the 
Pacific  after  Australia  and  New  Zealand  is  the  group 
of  islands  known  as  Fiji.  This  group  was  first  colo- 
nised by  escaped  convicts  from  Norfolk  Island,  and 
other  adventurous  characters,  but  it  had  been  previ- 
ously reconnoitred  by  several  explorers.  They  found 
beautiful  tropical  islands,  thickly  wooded,  with  a  heavy 
rainfall,  a  temperate  and  healthy  climate,  and  a  peculiarly 
fertile  soil,  formed  by  the  volcanic  eruptions  of  which 
many  signs  remain  in  the  jagged  peaks  of  extinct  vol- 
canoes. The  aborigines  were  Papuans,  but  more  ad- 
vanced in  civilisation  than  most  of  their  race,  dwelling 
under  a  system  of  government  in  tribes,  with  hereditary 


1 82  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

chiefs.  The  Fijians,  nevertheless,  are  celebrated  as 
being  among  the  most  blood-thirsty  of  their  race,  and 
they  carry  their  absolute  disregard  of  the  sacredness  of 
life  to  a  point  hardly  to  be  equalled  among  savage  races 
of  the  globe,  and  this  notwithstanding — perhaps  because 
of  —  a  firm  belief  in  a  future  life.  This  belief,  however, 
is  tainted  by  the  idea  that  their  bodies  will  retain  the 
form  in  which  they  die,  and  rather  than  become  wasted 
by  sickness  or  old  age  they  submit  to  being  buried  alive. 
A  young  man  who  fell  sick  requested  that  he  might  be 
so  disposed  of  before  he  got  thin  and  weak,  but  losing 
his  resolution  at  the  last  minute  asked  to  be  strangled 
first.  "  Sit  still,  and  be  buried  quietly  like  other  people, 
and  don't  give  so  much  trouble,"  was  the  reply,  and  the 
young  man  quietly  obeyed.  Another  well-authenticated 
story  is  that  one  tribe  of  Fijians  conquered  another 
on  a  neighbouring  islet,  and  the  subdued  tribe  more 
than  once  revolted,  whereupon  they  were  condemned 
to  be  eaten  by  their  conquerors,  and  were  kept  in 
their  village  and  brought  away  in  batches  to  stock  the 
larder.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  an  extraordinary 
fact  that  the  Fiji  Islands  have  been  one  of  the  most  fruit- 
ful fields  of  missionary  labour,  and  at  the  present  time 
the  people  are  all  nominally  Christians,  are  learning  to 
read  and  write,  and  have  quite  given  up  their  anthro- 
pophagous habits,  though  at  first,  it  is  to  be  feared,  they 
merely  regarded  the  white  missionary  as  a  change  of 
diet.  A  great  deal  of  the  influence  obtained  over  them 
was  by  means  of  native  teachers  from  Tonga,  as  they 
have  much  respect  for  the  Tongans,  who  frequently  sub- 
dued them  in  former  days.  One  of  the  first  converts 
was  the  King,  who  is  described  by  an  early  visitor  as 
indicating  every  day,  in  the  crowd  about  him,  which  per- 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  183 

son  he  would  prefer  for  supper,  a  habit  which  must  have 
made  the  role  of  courtier  an  extremely  trying  one. 

When  the  first  European  settlers  had  been  a  little  time 
on  the  islands,  and  had  started  a  rather  lucrative  trade 
with  the  natives  in  the  various  products  of  the  seas  and 
forests,  they  were  joined  by  some  parties  of  Australians 
of  a  better  class,  and  these  were  from  time  to  time  re- 
cruited from  the  colonies.  The  King,  after  his  conver- 
sion, became  desirous  of  entering  into  relations  with 
other  Christian  rulers,  and  in  1859  offered  practically 
to  sell  his  islands  to  Great  Britain.  After  some  vicis- 
situdes and  an  unsettled  period  which  could  obviously 
not  be  permitted  to  continue,  during  which  it  became 
evident  that  the  white  planters  needed  control  as  much 
as,  if  not  more  than,  the  natives,  the  islands  were  for- 
mally ceded  by  the  King  to  Great  Britain  in  1874,  and 
became  a  Crown  colony,  the  Governor  of  Fiji  being  also 
High  Commissioner  for  the  Western  Pacific. 

Under  Great  Britain  the  islands  have  been  cultivated 
on  a  sort  of  modified  "  culture  system "  carried  out 
through  the  native  chiefs.  This,  combined  with  mis- 
sionary efforts,  has  certainly  civilised  the  natives  beyond 
a  point  reached  by  any  others  of  their  race,  but  the  bene- 
fits of  such  civilisation,  even  when  most  carefully  intro- 
duced, do  not  prevent  the  South  Sea  islanders  from 
succumbing  to  some  malign  influence.  The  health  pre- 
servers of  the  European  —  sanitation,  clothing,  better 
houses  and  food  —  do  not  agree  with  the  aborigines, 
whether  Malay,  Papuan,  or  Polynesian,  and  the  intoxi- 
cants of  Europeans  are  only  a  trifle  less  fatal  to  the 
islanders  than  the  epidemics  they  introduce.  Therefore, 
although  at  one  time  parts  of  the  Fiji  Islands  were  thickly 
populated,  labourers  at  present  must  be  imported  and  are 


184  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Polynesians  (themselves  a  vanishing  race)  and  Indian 
coolies.  These  coolies  are  introduced  on  indenture  for 
five  years,  and  must  remain  another  five,  when  their  con- 
tract is  up ;  the  Polynesians  are  only  indentured  for 
three  years.  The  principal  export  is  sugar,  and  the  bulk 
of  the  trade  is  with  Sydney  and  New  Zealand. 

Other  British  possessions  in  the  Pacific  are  the  Solo- 
mon islands,  lying  due  east  of  British  New  Guinea,  and 
five  groups,  which  practically  include  all  the  islands  by 
which  Fiji  is  surrounded  on  the  east  and  north,  with  the 
exception  of  Samoa,  which  lies  a  little  to  the  northeast. 
On  the  west,  directly  between  Fiji  and  New  South 
Wales,  lie  two  important  groups  of  islands,  the  New 
Hebrides,  at  present  under  joint  control  of  Britain  and 
France,  and  New  Caledonia,  a  French  possession,  used 
chiefly  as  a  penal  settlement.  France  has  also  several 
groups  of  islands  further  east,  outside  the  belt  of  British 
interest,  known  as  the  Society,  Marquesas,  and  Austral 
islands,  and  beyond  these  again  are  two  of  the  loneliest 
and  remotest  of  Britain's  possessions :  Pitcairn,  the  island 
colonised  originally  by  the  mutinous  crew  of  the  Bounty, 
and  Easter  island,  famous  for  its  wonderful  and  mysteri- 
ous buildings  and  carvings. 

Although  the  island  of  Pitcairn  is  interesting  merely 
from  a  social  point  of  view  and  has  no  political  impor- 
tance, its  history  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  stories  of 
the  Pacific  —  that  ocean  where  romance  and  legend  are 
inextricably  woven  into  real  life,  and  where  the  very 
names  of  islands  recall  weird  stories,  and  the  blue  waters 
hide  the  bones  of  hundreds  of  "  ancient  mariners."  The 
crew  of  the  Bounty,  a  British  warship,  mutinied  in  1 790, 
in  the  Southern  Pacific,  and  set  adrift  their  commander, 
Bligh,  in  an  open  boat,  in  which  he  miraculously  drifted 


CONICAL  HUT:    FIJI    ISLANDS 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  185 

till  he  reached  Timor,  sighting  on  his  way  many  islands 
before  unknown  to  sailors.  The  crew  landed  at  Pitcairn, 
bringing  with  them  some  native  Polynesian  men  and 
women  whom  they  had  picked  up  in  another  island.  In 
a  few  years  all  the  men  were  dead  but  one,  who  took  the 
name  of  John  Adams,  and  he,  realising  his  responsible 
position,  pulled  himself  together,  organised  his  little  com- 
munity, instructed  them,  and  so  ordered  their  lives  that 
fifteen  years  later,  when  accidentally  re-discovered  by  an 
American  ship,  they  were  a  community  of  some  twenty 
to  thirty  living  in  neat  houses  with  gardens  and  enclos- 
ures, happy,  peaceable,  and  healthy,  no  such  thing  as 
crime  being  known  among  them  and  no  epidemic  dis- 
eases. The  report  was  brought  to  England,  but  not  till 
1825  was  the  island  visited  by  an  English  ship,  when 
the  community  was  in  the  same  idyllic  state  and  num- 
bered sixty-five.  Some  years  later  they  were  deported 
by  philanthropic  people  to  Norfolk  island,  but  about 
forty  chose  to  return  to  Pitcairn,  where  they  are  still 
living,  having  considerably  increased  their  number,  and 
are  visited  at  intervals  by  British  ships.  They  are 
described  in  the  present  year  as  being  still  in  a  state 
of  idyllic  freedom  from  crime.  Drink  and  tobacco  are 
unknown.  Some  forty  ships  call  there  during  the  year, 
but  only  the  masters  go  on  shore,  for  the  people  guard 
their  isolation  carefully.  A  curious  circumstance  is  the 
loss  among  adults  of  the  upper  front  teeth ;  otherwise 
this  peculiar  race  seems  quite  healthy,  and  it  is  further- 
more interesting  to  hear  that  already  their  isolation  from 
other  English-speaking  people  has  caused  them  to  develop 
a  dialect  so  that  some  can  hardly  understand  the  mother 
tongue. 

This  brief  sketch  will  give  some  idea  of  the  character 


i86 


THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 


and  extent  of  British  interests  in  the  Pacific,  in  which 
the  Australians  are  naturally  even  more  interested  than 
politicians  at  home.  Had  the  Federated  Commonwealth 
come  into  existence  earlier,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  United 
States  would  have  been  able  to  acquire  her  share  of 
Samoa,  while  the  present  anomalous  state  of  affairs  in 
the  New  Hebrides  would  have  been  brought  to  an 
abrupt  conclusion,  and  Germany  would  certainly  not 
have  had  the  opportunity  for  embarking  on  a  policy  of 
controlling  an  important  section  of  the  Pacific. 


GROUP   OF   TONGA    NATIVES 


NEW   GUINEA   HUTS 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  NEW  AUSTRALASIA  (continued] 

IN  the  triumphal  hour  which  greeted  the  consummation 
of  the  Federal  policy  it  was  natural  that  the  difficulties 
ahead  should  assume  a  less  serious  aspect  than  their 
gravity  warrants.  But  as  the  Federal  Government  settles 
down  to  business  these  difficulties  are  rapidly  assum- 
ing tangible  form,  and  it  is  daily  becoming  more  and 
more  evident  that  much  has  to  be  overcome  before  the 
states  of  Australia  can  become  really  united.  The  most 
serious  feature  is  the  refusal  of  New  Zealand,  after 
mature  deliberation,  to  join  the  Australian  Common- 
wealth. The  reasons  of  this  refusal  have  been  set  forth 
very  completely  in  the  report  of  a  Commission,  and  the 
writer  has  already  enumerated  most  of  the  social  and 
physical  facts  which  make  the  smaller  colony  quite 
unlike  the  neighbouring  continent.  As  regards  the 

187 


1 88  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

political  side  of  the  question,  it  has  been  decided  by 
New  Zealand  that  she  has  nothing  to  gain  and  much 
to  lose  by  union  with  the  Commonwealth.  Neither  as 
regards  legislative  independence,  finance,  postal  and  tele- 
graph services,  the  administration  of  justice,  agricultural, 
industrial,  and  commercial  interests,  nor  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  working  classes  and  coloured  labour,  would 
New  Zealand  be  assisted  by  Federation.  She  would 
moreover  suffer  by  the  enforced  absence  for  six  months 
of  the  year  of  some  of  her  abler  citizens,  who  would  be 
attending  the  Commonwealth  Parliament.  Politicians 
in  the  colonies  are  a  professional  class  by  themselves 
as  a  rule,  and  the  number  of  really  capable  men  is  very 
limited  in  such  a  young  community  as  New  Zealand. 
There  are  two  aspects  of  New  Zealand's  case  that 
make  her  decision  doubtful.  The  first  is  one  much 
dwelt  on  by  those  who  regard  the  inclusion  of  New 
Zealand  as  a  sine  qua  non  —  that  of  defence.  It  is 
obvious  that  New  Zealand  is  weakened  strategically  in 
the  case  of  attack  by  her  isolated  position,  but  in  answer 
to  this  the  New  Zealanders  make  two  points.  First, 
while  they  remain  in  their  present  status  they  are 
entitled  to  the  protection  of  the  British  fleet,  and  are 
therefore  spared  the  expense,  hardly  to  be  borne  by 
such  a  community,  of  providing  warships  of  their  own. 
So  long  as  Britain  retains  her  maritime  supremacy  they 
feel  safe.  Secondly,  in  case  of  an  attack  on  New 
Zealand,  Australia  would,  for  her  own  sake  as  well 
as  by  reason  of  ties  of  kinship,  afford  her  every  help  and 
protection.  Lest  this  should  seem  a  selfish  policy  New 
Zealand  expresses  her  readiness,  of  which  she  has  given 
practical  proof  during  the  South  African  war,  to  help  in 
the  work  of  Imperial  defence,  and  she  expresses  an  equal 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA 


189 


willingness  to  assist  Australia  in  any  difficulty,  her 
interests  being  bound  up  with  those  of  the  continent. 
The  second  drawback  to  New  Zealand's  isolation  is 
concerned  with  the  Federal  tariff  which  has  been  es- 
tablished. The  freedom  of  intercolonial  commerce  is 
of  great  importance  to  New  Zealand,  whose  principal 
Australian  trade  is  with  Sydney,  which  has  been  for 


A   PAPUAN   WAR   CANOE 


some  years  past  a  free  port.  The  Federal  Ministry, 
divided  upon  many  questions,  is  unanimous  in  its 
determination  to  maintain  a  protectionist  tariff  outside 
the  Federation.  The  tariff  is  not  a  hide-bound  system 
on  the  American  pattern,  but  rather  a  compromise 
between  that  and  one  desired  purely  for  revenue  pur- 
poses. The  whole  question  is  one  that  is  likely  to  be 
keenly  fought  in  the  future,  since  New  South  Wales 
has  a  strong  party  of  ardent  Free  Traders.  What- 


190  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

ever  may  be  the  mistakes  Britain  has  made  in  her  Colo- 
nial policy,  she  has  built  up  her  empire  entirely  on  a 
basis  of  free  and  open  trade ;  the  prosperity  and  rapid 
development  of  Australia  are  largely  due  to  this  sys- 
tem, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  her  statesmen  will  not 
be  blinded  by  the  apparent  exigencies  of  the  moment  to 
the  advantages  of  that  wide  and  generous  policy  which 
has  been  the  characteristic  of  British  trade  in  all  quar- 
ters of  the  globe. 

One  of  the  first  problems  to  be  dealt  with  by  the 
Federal  Government  is  the  labour  question  —  a  question 
which  is  far  from  being  confined  to  this  quarter  of  the 
Pacific.  The  magnitude  and  importance  of  this  problem 
cannot  be  exaggerated.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  lands 
waiting  for  the  labourer,  we  have  whole  islands  lying 
fallow  for  want  of  hands  to  till  them,  we  have  minerals 
waiting  to  be  exploited.  On  the  other  hand  we  have 
the  omnipresent  Chinaman,  ready  to  swarm  into  these 
lands.  It  seems  an  extremely  simple  situation,  but  mark 
the  complications.  In  some  of  these  countries  white  men 
cannot  work.  Well  and  good !  The  Chinese  will  work 
under  his  supervision ;  but  —  the  ever-present  "  but  "  — 
there  is  already  a  native  population,  who  ought  not  to 
be  jostled  out  of  their  place  on  the  land  as  the  Chinese 
will  inevitably  jostle  them.  In  others  the  white  man 
can  do  a  certain  amount  of  work,  and  here  he  finds  that 
the  Chinese  undersell  him.  Wherever  the  Chinese 
coolie  goes  he  takes  certain  things  with  him,  and  in 
every  country  where  yellow  face  and  long  pigtail  are 
once  seen  they  soon  become  too  fatally  familiar,  —  quar- 
ters spring  up,  opium  dens  are  opened,  and  the  Chinese 
peddler  begins  to  make  his  fortune  by  selling  at  a  quar- 
ter the  price  that  every  one  else  asks.  It  must  not  be 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  191 

supposed  that  John,  at  this  stage  of  his  career,  will  act 
as  emergency  man  —  he  has  realised  his  own  value  too 
well.  It  is  to  the  choicest  spots,  where  money  is  being 
made  quickly,  where  the  precious  metal  is  to  be  found 
and  profitable  work  done,  that  he  turns  his  face  now. 
Impoverished  Borneo  starves  for  him,  opens  her  arms  to 
him,  but  he  will  not  go  to  her.  The  Philippines,  where 
the  lavish  Americans  are  going  to  pour  out  millions  of 
dollars  on  public  works,  are  more  to  his  taste,  or  Queens- 
land with  her  prosperous  plantations  and  high  wages. 

The  problem  is  twofold :  how  to  keep  the  Chinaman 
out,  and  what  to  do  without  him. 

The  situation  is  already  acute  in  Australia,  where  a 
great  portion  of  one  State  (Queensland)  is  unfit  for  culti- 
vation by  the  white  man,  and  coloured  labour  is  largely 
employed,  no  fewer  than  twenty  thousand  coloured  aliens 
—  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hindoos,  and  Polynesians  —  being 
employed.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Japanese  are  in 
some  respects  even  less  desirable  colonists  than  the 
Chinese,  as  Americans  are  discovering  in  Hawaii,  for 
they  do  not  settle  down  as  peacefully  and  have  a  pro- 
pensity to  go  to  law  about  small  matters  almost  as  strong 
as  with  the  litigious  Hindoo. 

The  labour  party  in  Australia  is  naturally  a  very 
strong  one,  and  is  making  every  effort  to  secure  the 
Senate.  Their  programme  will  exclude  every  coloured 
alien,  and  is  so  sweeping  that  the  original  drafting  of 
the  recent  Bill  would  even  have  excluded  British  over- 
seers or  a  Protestant  Minister  from  accepting  an  engage- 
ment under  contract.  The  Immigration  Bill  is  quite  as 
drastic  as  any  passed  by  the  United  States,  though  the 
country  is  not  so  populated  as  were  the  United  States 
when  they  passed  their  laws.  The  programme  of  Aus- 


i92  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

tralia  for  the  Australians  is  carried  to  a  somewhat  absurd 
point  when  politicians  actually  obstruct  the  progress  of 
an  island  like  New  Guinea  by  objecting  even  there  to 
coloured  aliens.  But  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that, 
despite  the  very  strong  planter-interest  brought  to  bear 
from  Queensland,  and  the  impossibility  of  fully  develop- 
ing that  country  without  outside  coloured  aid,  the  Aus- 
tralians are  determined  to  preserve  their  continent  from 
what  they  call  the  contamination  of  the  yellow  and  black 
races.  The  Pacific  Island  Labourers'  Bill  prohibits  isl- 
anders from  entering  the  Commonwealth  after  March  31, 
1904,  and  only  allows  their  immigration  meanwhile  under 
license.  No  agreement  between  employers  and  Pacific 
island  labourers  is  to  remain  in  force  after  December  31, 
1906;  any  islanders  found  in  Australia  after  that  date 
are  to  be  deported.  Already  restrictions  on  Chinese  and 
Japanese  immigration  have  been  greatly  increased,  while 
steps  are  to  be  taken  against  natives  of  India  by  means  of 
an  education  test.  As  the  Hindoos  are  British  subjects, 
this  is  sailing  rather  near  the  wind,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see 
how  the  measure  can  receive  the  sanction  of  the  Imperial 
Government.  Japan  is  not  likely  to  acquiesce  in  the  re- 
strictions against  Japanese,  and  she  may  adopt  retaliatory 
measures.  It  is,  of  course,  the  man  who  will  not  do  the 
work  himself  who  objects  most  strongly  to  the  employ- 
ment of  the  coloured  coolie,  and  as  there  is  plenty  of  work 
still  to  be  had  in  more  congenial  lines  and  temperate 
climates  the  Australian  is  not  driven  to  take  to  such 
labour.  The  feeling  throughout  the  entire  southern  por- 
tion of  the  continent  is  so  strong  that,  whatever  may  be 
the  sacrifices  involved  in  the  case  of  Queensland,  there 
is  little  doubt  that  for  the  next  thirty  or  forty  years  the 
coloured  alien  will  be  entirely  excluded,  until  such  time 


A   NEW  GUINEA   GIRL 


THE    NEW   AUSTRALASIA 


193 


as  the  growing  numbers  of  the  white  man  force  him  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  less  developed  parts  of  his  con- 
tinent. The  diverging  interests  —  between  the  Federal 
Government  dependent  on  the  white  labour  party  and 
North  Australia  dependent  on  coloured  labour  —  consti- 
tute a  serious  danger  to  the  unity  of  the  new  Common- 
wealth. 

Although  settlement  began  in  the  Australian  conti- 
nent barely  more  than  a  century  ago,  and  though  fifty 
years  ago  Australia  was  merely  a  pastoral  land  with  a 
trade  of  not  more  than  ,£9,000,000,  its  trade  in  1899, 
external  and  inter-colonial,  had  increased  to  no  less  than 
^161,000,000  (including  New  Zealand),  the  imports  being 
^72,000,000  and  the  exports  ,£89,000,000.  So  rapid  has 
been  the  increase  that  the  total  trade  per  head  of  popu- 
lation is  exceeded  only  in  Belgium,  where,  however,  a 
great  part  of  the  trade  is  merely  in  transit  to  and  from 
Northwestern  and  Central  Europe. 

Classified  by  States,  the  total  and  inter-colonial  trade 
was  as  under,1  given  in  round  numbers  in  millions  ster- 
ling. Of  the  foreign  Australian  trade  much  the  greater 
share  is  with  the  United  Kingdom,  and  of  the  remainder 


TOTAL  TRADB 
(Millions  Sterling) 

INTER-COLONIAL 
TKADB 
(Millions  Sterling) 

1  New  South  Wales  

over  54 

over  21^ 

Victoria       

V7  V* 

IVA 

Queensland      

1814 

IO 

South  Australia    

I  eiZ 

714 

M^estern  Australia    

\\\/. 

c 

Tasmania    

A 

2'A 

New  Zealand    

2Ol/£ 

•t 

i6ii 

63 

i94  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

the  larger  portion  is  with  foreign  countries,  especially 
Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  the  United  States.  The 
distribution  of  external  trade  was  as  follows:  with  the 
United  Kingdom,  about  63  millions  sterling,  with  Brit- 
ish possessions  over  9  millions,  with  foreign  countries, 
25  millions.  Less  than  twenty  years  ago  the  European 
trade  of  Australasia,  it  is  important  to  note,  was  almost 
entirely  with  the  United  Kingdom,  but  a  great  and 
growing  change  in  the  direction  of  direct  commercial 
relations  with  the  European  Continental  countries  has 
taken  place  since  then. 

The  imports  from  the  principal  countries  are  as 
follows.  From  the  British  Empire :  the  United  King- 
dom over  26  millions  sterling,  India  and  Ceylon  over 
i^  millions,  with  small  amounts  from  Canada,  Fiji,  Hong 
Kong,  and  the  Straits  bringing  the  total  up  to  30  mill- 
ions. From  foreign  countries :  the  United  States  over 
5  millions,  Germany  2  millions,  half  a  million  from 
France  and  New  Caledonia,  and  lesser  amounts  from 
Belgium,  Sweden,  Netherlands  and  Java,  South  Sea 
islands,  China  and  Japan.  The  exports  to  the  British 
Empire  were :  United  Kingdom  36  millions  sterling, 
India  and  Ceylon  3,  Cape  Colony  i  J,  and  lesser  amounts 
to  Canada,  Fiji,  and  Hong  Kong.  To  foreign  coun- 
tries: France  and  New  Caledonia  nearly  4  millions, 
Germany  3,  Belgium  2,  United  States  3,  and  lesser 
amounts  to  Italy,  the  South  Sea  islands,  China,  and 
Japan. 

The  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  with  Australasia  is 
only  just  exceeded  by  that  with  India,  while  it  is  nearly 
double  that  with  Canada,  and  is  only  surpassed  by  her 
commerce  with  three  other  countries,  namely  the  United 
States,  over  155  millions,  France  75,  and  Germany  68. 


THE    NEW   AUSTRALASIA  195 

The  commerce  with  foreign  countries  is  rapidly  on  the 
increase,  and  yearly  steamers  of  increasing  tonnage 
and  higher  speed  are  competing  for  the  trade  with 
Australasia  from  Europe,  and  new  outlets  are  con- 
stantly being  opened.  Some  curious  facts  appear  regard- 
ing imports,  which  have  increased  from  over  ,£2,000,000 
in  1871  to  over  ,£10,000,000  in  1899.  Germany,  for 
instance,  which  twenty  years  ago  had  a  trade  of  only  a 
little  over  ,£200,000,  can  now  boast  of  one  amounting 
to  over  ,£2,000,000,  and  has  therefore  increased  tenfold, 
while  the  United  States'  trade  has  trebled  in  the  same 
period.  During  the  past  eighteen  years  or  so  the 
annual  increase  with  the  four  principal  foreign  countries 
has  been:  Belgium  over  17  per  cent.,  Germany  16, 
France  and  New  Caledonia  10,  United  States  under  6. 
As  regards  exports  from  Australasia  they  have  increased 
in  forty  years  from  three-quarters  of  a  million  sterling  to 
over  ,£15,000,000.  The  progress  of  trade  with  Belgium, 
which  stands  so  high  in  the  list,  is  not  really  so  great  as 
it  seems  at  first  sight,  for  the  wool  shipped  through 
Antwerp  passes  largely  to  Germany,  France,  and  else- 
where. 

The  history  of  foreign  steamer  communication  is 
worthy  of  notice.  The  French  Messageries  Maritimes 
commenced  operations  in  1883,  and  the  North  German 
Lloyd  in  1887,  other  German  vessels  the  next  year 
beginning  direct  communication  between  the  wool- 
exporting  cities  of  Australia  and  the  ports  of  Antwerp, 
Hamburg,  and  Dunkirk,  and  since  then  Belgium  has 
established  her  own  line  of  steamships.  The  latest 
invader,  and  one  likely  to  prove  a  very  serious  competi- 
tor, is  the  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha,  which  runs  vessels 
twice  a  month  between  Japanese  ports  and  Sydney  via 


196  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

Manila.  As  regards  British  lines,  from  British  Colum- 
bia there  are  monthly  steamers  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
railway,  as  well  as  the  well-known  lines  from  England, 
India,  Singapore,  and  Hong  Kong.  From  the  United 
States  Pacific  coast,  namely  from  San  Francisco,  there 
is  a  line  once  a  month.  It  is  apparent  that  the  attempt 
to  divert  trade  direct  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  chiefly 
the  result  of  lessons  learnt  earlier  from  the  South 
American  markets,  has  been  very  successful,  and  we  may 
look  for  more  serious  developments  in  this  direction. 

The  American  share  of  the  Australasian  external 
trade  in  1899  was  about  34  per  cent.,  the  greater  part 
carried  on  with  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  New 
Zealand.  The  main  exports  are  specie  and  wool,  and  in 
a  minor  degree  coal,  kauri  gum,  and  New  Zealand  flax. 
The  export  of  wool  has  decreased  since  1891,  owing  to 
tariff  charges,  and  with  the  present  tariff  and  present 
conditions  as  regards  means  of  communication  no  great 
extension  of  trade  with  the  United  States  can  be  antici- 
pated. 

It  is  therefore  in  the  direction  of  India,  China,  Japan, 
Siberia,  Manchuria,  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago  that  ex- 
tension must  be  sought,  where  new  markets  may  possi- 
bly be  found  and  others  developed.  For  instance,  in 
Japan  and  Northern  China,  not  to  speak  of  the  Russian 
territories,  there  must  be  an  opening  for  wool,  when  the 
advantages  of  such  a  material  are  brought  home  to  their 
people,  and  Japan,  it  is  worthy  of  notice,  has  already  with- 
drawn the  duty  she  imposed  on  wool.  Contrary  to  all 
expectation,  a  considerable  business  is  already  done  with 
India  and  Ceylon,  particularly  in  tea.  At  present  the 
trade  with  Hong  Kong  and  China  (Hong  Kong  being 
chiefly  a  distributing  centre  for  China)  is  in  imports 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  197 

over  ,£600,000  and  exports  over  ,£700,000.  The  trade 
with  the  South  Pacific  islands,  chiefly  with  Fiji  and  New 
Caledonia,  consists  mainly  of  the  importation  of  raw  arti- 
cles in  exchange  for  Australasian  produce,  but  the  busi- 
ness with  New  Caledonia,  principally  from  Sydney,  is 
decreasing,  owing  to  the  heavy  prohibitive  tariff  enforced 
by  France.  The  trade  with  New  Guinea,  as  already  in- 
dicated, is  merely  in  its  infancy  and  is  not  likely  to  be 
developed  for  many  years  to  come,  while  that  with  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  and  Borneo  is  almost  nil. 

Wool  is  still  the  staple  product  of  Australasia.  Of  the 
total  exported,  New  South  Wales  heads  the  list  with 
over  £  1 0,000,000,  New  Zealand  comes  second  with  over 
£4,000,000,  Victoria  and  Queensland  each  with  over 
.£3,000,000,  and  South  Australia  £"1,500,000.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  pastoral  industry  in  the  various  States 
chiefly  concerned  is :  New  South  Wales,  about  66  pel 
cent. ;  New  Zealand,  54  per  cent. ;  and  Queensland,  58 
per  cent. 

If  the  present  prospects  of  extending  trade  are  largely 
in  the  direction  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  the  develop- 
ments now  at  work  on  the  Pacific  slope,  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  British  North  America,  coupled 
with  the  fresh  field  opened  by  the  new  departure  in 
American  policy  in  the  Pacific,  are  likely  to  bring  about 
a  great  extension  of  world  commerce,  of  which  Australasia 
should  have  its  share.  With  the  cutting  of  a  trans-isth- 
mian canal  a  still  further  impetus  will  be  given  to  Pacific 
trade,  and  one  of  a  revolutionary  character,  which  will 
affect  the  isolated  and  partially  opened  islands,  such  as 
the  Fiji  group  and  others  as  yet  untouched,  and  in  these 
developments  Australasia  has  the  chief  interest.  With 
an  eye  to  the  future,  therefore,  the  Australasians  have 


198  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

looked  round.  New  Zealand  has  urged  the  incorporation 
with  her  of  Fiji  and  neighbouring  groups  in  an  Island 
Federation;  has  caused  the  annexation  of  the  Harvey 
and  Cook  groups;  and  has  also  strongly  advocated  the 
occupation  of  a  suitable  island  further  east,  on  the  trade 
route  of  the  future,  which  would  be  to  Great  Britain  and 
Australasia  what  Honolulu  and  Pango-pango  in  Samoa 
are  to  the  United  States.  Such  an  island  they  assert  is 
Rapa,  or  Oparu,  one  of  the  Austral  group,  now  under 
the  protection  of  France,  which  they  urge  should  be 
obtained.  Here  a  good  harbour  and  coal  are  to  be  had, 
two  most  important  advantages,  and  the  position  — a  sort 
of  half-way  house  between  the  isthmus  and  Australasia 
—  is  one  which  offers  many  advantages. 

With  the  enormous  seaboard  and  the  mere  fringe 
occupied  in  Australia,  it  would  appear  at  first  sight 
that  there  is  no  great  need  of  any  but  local  railways 
to  open  up  inaccessible  districts.  But  with  the  devel- 
opments occurring  in  the  country,  especially  with  the 
states  joined  as  a  Commonwealth,  the  need  for  a  trans- 
continental line  becomes  more  and  more  apparent.  It 
seems  a  certainty  that,  even  without  such  a  railway, 
Sydney  must  become  the  chief  harbour  of  Australia,  on 
account  of  its  great  resources  and  the  magnificent  posi- 
tion it  occupies  on  the  continent ;  facing  the  Pacific 
with  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  whole  world  and 
the  only  possible  one  on  the  east  coast.  Newcastle 
is  doubtless  destined  to  become  a  large  manufacturing 
city  by  reason  of  her  coal  deposits,  but  the  harbour 
cannot  be  compared  with  that  of  Sydney.  The  natural 
outlet  for  Australian  trade  in  the  Pacific  must  therefore 
be  Sydney,  and  its  importance  is  certain  to  be  greatly, 
accentuated  by  the  projected  trans-continental  railway. 


NEW   ZEALAND   FERNS 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  199 

There  are  difficulties  in  the  way,  however,  for  this  rail- 
way is  opposed  by  some  of  the  Eastern  States  and  South 
Australia.  If  a  line  be  made  from  Perth  to  Sydney 
across  the  continent,  it  is  apparent  that  Adelaide  must 
surfer  very  considerably,  —  indeed  the  raison  d  etre  for  its 
existence  would  almost  disappear.  Now,  the  Common- 
wealth Act  forbids  the  Federal  authority  to  build  a  rail- 
way in  any  State  without  its  consent.  South  Australia 
is  very  unlikely  ever  to  give  its  consent  unless  some 
compensating  advantage  can  be  found,  and  the  position 
is  therefore  certain  to  become  more  and  more  strained. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  northern  territory  is  to  be  taken 
over  from  South  Australia  by  the  Federal  Government, 
which  will  probably  lead  to  a  railway  being  made  to 
Port  Darwin,  a  line  advocated  as  preferable  to  the 
Western  one  on  general  grounds  and  as  a  measure  of 
defence  of  great  importance.  On  the  other,  the  West- 
ern Australians  threaten  to  break  up  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment unless  they  get  their  railway  and  are  thus 
brought  into  close  contact  with  the  rest  of  the  Common- 
wealth, and  this  view  is  likely  to  become  much  stronger 
as  the  value  of  the  Pacific  becomes  realised.  The  rail- 
way, which  must  be  carried  through  1 100  miles  of  water- 
less, uninhabited,  and  (except  by  irrigation)  uncultivable 
country,  presents  no  engineering  difficulties,  but  the 
absence  of  water  is  a  serious  matter.  The  future  traffic 
cannot  be  estimated,  but  that  it  will  be  of  great  gen- 
eral advantage  to  the  Commonwealth,  uniting  the  two 
sides  of  the  Australian  continent,  cannot  be  doubted. 
The  difficulty  is  therefore  a  very  serious  one,  and  is 
likely  to  test  the  Federal  Government  severely. 
The  mileage  of  railways  open  on  the  continent  is 
over  15,000,  and  in  New  Zealand  over  2300,  while 


200  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

construction  is  being  proceeded  with  at  a  prudent 
pace. 

Australasia  will  shortly  be  connected  with  Britain  by 
two  new  cable  lines.  One,  the  property  of  the  Eastern 
Telegraph  Company,  will  span  the  Indian  Ocean,  via 
Mauritius,  Rodriguez,  and  Cocos  or  Keeling  island,  and 
thence  to  Fremantle  in  Western  Australia.  The  other 
will  cross  the  Pacific  from  Vancouver,  via  Fanning 
island  to  Fiji  and  Norfolk  island,  whence  one  cable 
will  run  to  Southport  near  Brisbane  in  Queensland, 
and  the  other  to  the  northernmost  point  on  the  North 
island  of  New  Zealand.  This  line  will  have  the  longest 
cable  span  in  the  world,  the  distance  from  Vancouver  to 
Fanning  island  being  no  less  than  3600  miles,  and  its 
deepest  sounding  will  be  over  3200  fathoms,  almost  the 
greatest  depth  at  which  any  cable  has  yet  been  laid. 

These  lines  are  British,  either  State-built  and  owned 
or  in  the  hands  of  a  British  Company.  It  seems  advis- 
able that  all  such  cables  should  be  under  Government 
control  and  the  land  telegraphs  of  British  possessions 
State-owned.  The  land  telegraphs  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  New  Zealand,  Australia,  India,  and  South 
Africa  are  already  nationalised  and  administered  by  the 
Post  Office,  and,  when  those  of  Canada  are  taken  over, 
State-owned  telegraphs  and  cables  will  connect  London 
with  Australia,  and  a  distance  of  over  15,000  miles 
(two-thirds  the  circumference  of  the  entire  globe)  will  be 
covered  by  a  State-owned  telegraph  service.  This  fresh 
development  of  cable  communication  was  much  needed 
to  bind  the  various  parts  of  the  British  Empire  in 
America,  the  Pacific,  and  Australia  to  the  mother 
country.  British  interests  in  Asia  and  Africa,  by  means 
of  branch  cables,  will  again  be  linked  on  to  the  Empire, 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  201 

which  in  this  century  is  to  be  found  in  five  continents 
and  comprises  vast  areas  in  both  hemispheres.  The  mul- 
tiplication of  means  of  communication  with  the  centre 
and  with  one  another  is  a  growing  necessity  towards 
promoting  the  unity  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Empire. 

While  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  sketch  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Australian  colonies  and  a  few  of  the 
domestic  problems  that  await  the  Federal  Government, 
nothing  has  as  yet  been  said  on  a  most  important  sub- 
ject, the  future  relations  between  the  colonies  and  the 
mother  country.  It  is  abundantly  evident,  even  from 
the  slight  sketch  of  past  relations  given  here,  that  the 
colonists  have  frequently  been  obliged  to  insist  very 
strenuously  in  order  to  ensure  action  which  was  to  them 
a  vital  necessity,  and  there  is  considerable  truth  in  the 
complaint  made  that  Great  Britain  does  not  concern 
herself  as  actively  as  she  should  about  the  welfare  of  her 
children  in  distant  quarters  of  the  globe.  The  ardour 
and  enthusiasm  cannot  be  all  on  one  side. 

It  has  been  said  already  that  the  Australians,  though 
British  by  descent,  are  already  showing  signs  of  racial 
development  on  fresh  lines,  and  the  strength  of  their 
national  feeling  —  as  Australians  and  not  as  Britons  — 
is  evidenced  by  the  protectionist  tariff  against  Britain, 
the  efforts  being  made  to  close  Australia  to  immigration, 
and  by  many  other  signs  of  the  times.  The  enthusiasm 
recently  shown  by  Australia  and  New  Zealand  in  the 
cause  of  Imperial  defence,  while  evidencing  the  strong 
feeling  which  exists  of  kinship  and  a  common  cause  with 
Great  Britain,  is  in  the  writer's  opinion  too  frequently 
taken  as  a  sign  of  an  indiscriminating  loyalty  to  the 
mother  country.  Australia  is  not  disloyal,  but  the  senti- 
ment, national  feeling,  or  whatever  name  may  be  used  to 


202  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

designate  that  peculiar  outcome  of  race  development,  is 
tending  towards  a  liberty  and  independence  which  recog- 
nises no  obligation,  but  declares  its  intention  of  acting 
freely  if  generously  towards  the  land  which  gave  it 
birth.  The  spontaneity  and  freedom  with  which  aid 
was  offered  in  the  South  African  war  must  not  be 
regarded  altogether  as  a  precedent.  There  were  cir- 
cumstances which  specially  enlisted  the  sympathies  and 
interests  of  Australia,  and  she  has  made  it  plain  that  her 
action  was  above  everything  voluntary,  and  not  dictated 
by  any  considerations  of  obligation.  Canada  went  a  step 
further  in  intimating  that  she  was  not  desirous  of  cre- 
ating a  precedent.  The  whole  incident  of  colonial  aid 
in  the  war  is  one  which,  putting  aside  the  torrent  of 
sentimental  gush  it  has  called  forth,  is  worthy  of  deep 
consideration  and  affords  much  food  for  reflection  to 
the  thoughtful  student  of  politics. 

The  serious  divergence  of  interests  in  the  different 
colonies  of  Australia  has  been  already  referred  to,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Federal  Government  will  be 
able  to  reconcile  them,  or  at  any  rate  to  introduce  a 
certain  unselfishness  and  esprit  de  corps  in  the  various 
members  of  the  Federation  which  will  lead  them  to  act 
for  the  general  welfare.  The  first  session  of  the  Aus- 
tralian parliament  has  been  marked  by  serious  and  digni- 
fied discussion,  albeit  a  little  lengthy,  and  the  added 
weight  of  responsibility  will  probably  improve  the  stand- 
ard of  Colonial  politicians.  But  Australia  is  somewhat 
overweighted  with  her  Labour  Party,  an  excellent  thing 
in  itself,  when  played  off  against  a  more  altruistic 
body,  but  which,  composed  of  men  whose  political  vision 
is  restricted  to  the  most  material  issues,  becomes  a 
serious  danger  to  a  nation  —  no  longer  colonies,  with 


PAPUAN    DRUMS   OR   SPIRIT  CARVINGS 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA 


203 


a  distant  Government  to  watch  over  their  wider  interests, 
but  really,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  a  nation.  That 
Australia  is  a  new  continent  and  a  new  nation  is  the 
crux  of  the  situation. 

One  of  the  chief  features  of  Australian  development  is 
that  long  before  her  own  territory  is  peopled  she  has 
begun  not  merely  to  shut  out  the  coloured  man,  and 
restrict  immigration,  but  also  to  desire  influence  over 
contiguous  islands.  It  has  been  shown  that  New  Guinea 
was  partially  acquired  only  at  the  solicitation  of  all  the 
colonies,  while  New  Zealand  has  made  frequent  repre- 
sentations about  Fiji,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  other 
groups,  which  she  considers  should  be  brought  under  her 
wing.  There  is  so  much  that  is  reasonable  in  these  aims 
that  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  they  can  be  checked  in  the 
future.  The  administration  of  the  French  colonies  in  the 
Pacific  has  always  been  a  serious  scandal,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  such  in  the  vicinity  of  highly  organised  and 
ambitious  States  is  like  an  open  sore  in  a  healthy  body. 
The  islands  are  capable  of  development,  no  doubt,  but  it 
is  not  so  much  that,  nor  the  exploitation  of  the  native, 
that  is  the  object,  but  the  removal  from  these  seas  of 
methods  of  government,  policy,  and  administration  which 
are  contrary  to  the  most  cherished  traditions  of  the  British 
colonies,  and  make  the  islands  an  Alsatia  and  a  dumping 
ground  for  ne'er-do-wells  from  Europe.  The  convict 
question  has  been  settled,  but  the  nuisance  remains. 
The  strategic  importance  of  the  New  Hebrides  and 
New  Caledonia  is  not  in  reality  a  pressing  matter,  for 
Fiji  dominates  those  groups.  But  New  Guinea  is  of 
strategic  value,  and  while  Australia  does  not  at  pres- 
ent absolutely  object  to  the  presence  there  of  Ger- 
many—  quiescent  in  the  north  of  the  island  and  in  the 


204  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

Solomon  and  smaller  groups  —  she  would  strenuously 
resent  any  extensive  development  of  German  power  in 
the  Pacific,  such  as  the  creation  of  a  large  naval  station 
or  the  acquisition  of  any  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Any 
such  action  would  at  once  rouse  Australasia  to  a  man. 
The  Australian  Monroe  Doctrine  has  not  yet  been  offi- 
cially promulgated  or  incorporated  in  the  national  policy, 
but  its  spirit  is  breathed  by  all  Australians.  The  day, 
therefore,  may  not  be  distant  when  Britain  may  have 
to  decide  between  her  colonies  and  some  of  the  Euro- 
pean Powers  —  in  particular  her  ally  Germany.  The 
question  is  certainly  one  that  should  receive  serious 
consideration  before  the  actual  occasion  arises,  for  by 
such  consideration  may  the  clashing  of  interests  be 
avoided,  —  and  forewarned  is  forearmed. 

Maritime  defence  is  perhaps  the  most  pressing  need 
for  Australasia  with  her  extended  seaboard,  which,  how- 
ever, with  her  coal  supply  and  fine  harbours,  affords 
great  opportunities  for  the  development  of  sea  power.  If 
the  young  Commonwealth  is  to  attain  the  high  ends 
she  has  in  view  she  must  be  prepared  not  only  to 
make  sacrifices  in  order  to  provide  adequate  home  de- 
fence, but  to  bear  her  full  share  in  the  work  of  Imperial 
defence.  The  time  has  come  when  these  questions  must 
be  placed  on  a  sounder  basis  than  that  of  sentiment. 
The  British  dominions  beyond  the  seas  owe  their  pres- 
ent security  to  their  position  as  part  of  the  great  Empire 
of  Britain,  and  it  is  only  by  close  federation  and  co-opera- 
tion that  that  Empire  can  hold  her  own. 

Australia  has  now  been  briefly  sketched,  —  a  young 
and  lusty  nation,  a  rich  country  with  lands  still  unex- 
ploited,  a  future  full  of  possibilities,  —  truly  a  happy 
people  and  a  noble  land. 


THE   NEW   AUSTRALASIA  205 

With  all  these  advantages,  as  has  been  pointed  out 
already,  the  young  Commonwealth  has  serious  difficulties 
to  deal  with,  and  in  turning  to  a  final  glimpse  of  social 
life  and  conditions  we  are  met  at  the  outset  by  a  curious 
and  serious  fact.  This  is  the  steady  decrease  in  the 
birthrate,  which  has  been  noticeable  for  some  years 
past.  In  a  country  where  population  is  urgently 
wanted,  and  where  immigration  is  discountenanced  so 
that  there  can  be  little  infusion  of  fresh  blood,  this  gives 
rise  to  considerable  misgivings.  The  cause  has  been  a 
good  deal  debated,  but  certain  facts  are  patent  to  any 
observer  of  Australian  life.  The  first  is  that  the  aver- 
age "  native  born "  is  taller  and  paler  than  his  British 
forbear.  The  hot,  dry  climate  induces  a  nervous  tem- 
perament, also  unlike  the  typical  British  stolidity.  Girls 
develop  rapidly,  have  a  tendency  to  anaemia,  and  age  ear- 
lier than  is  usual  with  English  women.  The  life,  too,  is 
very  strenuous.  There  is  not,  perhaps,  the  brain-fag,  the 
nerve-strain,  of  city  life  in  the  old  country ;  but  we  know 
that  the  average  Londoner  is  not  a  typical  English  man 
or  woman  since  the  country  is  thickly  populated  with  a 
reserve  stock  constantly  replenishing  the  cities,  who, 
despite  the  rush  and  bustle  of  the  times,  lead  sheltered, 
peaceful  lives,  and  do  not  work  either  brains  or  bodies 
beyond  the  limits  of  endurance. 

This  is  typical  England  —  the  land  of  country  homes, 
of  well-ordered  service,  and  unostentatious  ease  —  and 
from  this  class  comes  a  large  proportion  of  our  colonis- 
ing material.  There  is,  of  course,  another  side  of  the 
picture,  and  the  rapid  increase  of  the  lower-middle  and 
working  classes  can  certainly  not  be  attributed  to  a 
superfluity  of  ease,  though  it  is  doubtless  assisted  by  a 
lack  of  nerves.  This  question  is  too  intricate  to  be  ana- 


206  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

lysed  here,  but  it  may  be  said  roughly  that  the  labour- 
ing man  belongs  to  one  of  two  classes.  Either  he  is 
proud  of  his  ability  to  provide  for  a  wife  and  family, 
however  numerous,  or  else  he  recognises  his  inability, 
and  knowing  that  some  one  has  to  provide,  thinks  half  a 
dozen  more  or  less  makes  little  difference. 

When  a  man  from  either  of  these  classes  gets  to  the 
other  side  of  the  world,  he  finds  a  great  difference.  He 
finds  the  class  distinctions  far  less  rigid,  and  with  increased 
dignity  comes  increased  responsibility.  In  democracies, 
while  there  is  a  general  sharing  of  burdens,  there  is  no 
escaping  one's  individual  load,  and  if  wages  are  higher  in 
the  new  land,  the  standard  of  living  is  proportionate  — 
and  many  things  which  seemed  to  drop  from  the  skies 
at  home  must  be  got  by  hard  labour,  or  done  without. 
The  descendants  of  the  two  differing  types  both  arrive 
at  the  same  point,  —  they  are  prosperous  but  prudent, 
and  unfortunately  prudence  seems  to  begin  at  the  point 
arrived  at  some  time  ago  by  the  small  freeholder  of 
France.  Climate  has  no  doubt  much  to  do  with  it  in 
the  case  of  the  Australians. 

To  this  leisured  country  class  which  is  the  chief  reserve 
stock  of  Britain  there  is  no  parallel  in  Australia,  just  as 
there  is  no  parallel  to  the  poverty-stricken,  irresponsible 
class.  There  are  degrees  of  wealth,  of  course,  and  we 
hear  of  Australian  millionaires ;  but  the  typical  Austra- 
lian is  not  one,  and  circumstances  make  his  life  far  more 
strenuous  than  that  of  a  Briton  with  a  similar  income. 
This  is  intensified  in  the  case  of  the  women,  who  from 
their  earliest  girlhood,  even  in  wealthy  homes,  are  accus- 
tomed to  do  much  of  the  housework,  besides  taking  a 
great  deal  of  physical  exercise  and  enjoying  to  the  full 
all  the  amusements  natural  to  their  age.  An  Australian 


THE   NEW  AUSTRALASIA  207 

girl  would  consider  the  life  of  an  average  English 
maiden  extremely  dull  and  colourless,  and  would  miss 
the  attention  she  is  accustomed  to  from  the  other 
sex,  for  women  are  still  scarce  enough  in  Australia  for  a 
man  to  ride  twenty  miles  to  spend  the  evening  with  one, 
and  even  in  the  larger  cities  the  balance  of  numbers  is  in 
favour  of  the  stronger  sex.  When  a  girl  marries,  her 
life  becomes  of  necessity  even  fuller.  Whether  she 
dwells  in  cities  or  on  distant  ranches,  she  has  the  same 
difficulty  in  procuring  servants,  or,  as  they  must  be 
termed,  "helps."  An  Australian  lady  told  the  writer 
that  her  "  lady-help  "  in  the  kitchen  stipulated  for  certain 
nights  out,  on  which  she  could  attend  a  series  of  sub- 
scription dances,  and  her  long  gloves  and  fan  were  fre- 
quently found  mixed  up  with  the  pudding  basins  on  the 
kitchen  table. 

The  "  help  "  question  which  has  been  exercising  the 
minds  of  women  at  home  for  many  years  has  hardly, 
however,  been  elevated  to  the  position  of  a  social  problem 
in  the  colonies.  It  is  part  of  a  recognised  system,  and 
Australian  women  bake  and  wash  and  iron  as  a  matter 
of  course.  It  is  obvious  that,  with  all  these  duties  super- 
added  to  social  amusements  and  obligations,  life  is  very 
busy,  and  the  average  woman  must  have  head  and  hands 
occupied  from  morning  till  night.  The  care  of  children 
under  such  circumstances  is  no  sinecure.  The  writer 
does  not  wish  to  suggest  that  Australian  women  shirk 
the  responsibilities  of  maternity,  though  such  an  allega- 
tion has  been  brought  against  Americans  on  .esser 
grounds.  He  has  merely  stated  the  fact,  and  in  a  rough 
sketch  of  social  conditions  indicated  those  which  seem 
likely  to  have  an  influence  on  it.  The  root  of  the  matter 
seems  to  lie  midway  between  physical  and  social  causes. 


208  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

The  dry,  hot  climate,  no  doubt,  produces  its  effect  on 
nerves  and  physique  which  are  further  exhausted  by  the 
demands  made  by  the  busy  life,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  general  high  standard  of  wages  and  of  living  operate 
somewhat  unexpectedly  in  the  same  direction,  as  has 
V  already  been  shown. 


BRITISH   COLUMBIA:    RIVER   SCENE 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CANADA    AND    THE    PACIFIC 

To  turn  from  Greater  Britain  in  the  Western  and 
Southern  Pacific  to  her  interests  on  the  Eastern  sea- 
board. Within  the  compass  of  this  work  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  give  more  than  a  passing  reference  to  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  and  the  merest  outline  sketch  of 
her  westernmost  territory  bordering  the  Pacific,  British 
Columbia,  —  sufficient,  however,  it  is  hoped,  to  indicate 
the  part  she  is  likely  to  play  in  the  future. 

The  growth  of  Canada  has  been  phenomenal,  when 
the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Not  more  than  sixty  years  ago  British 
North  America  consisted  of  the  provinces  of  Nova 
Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  New  Brunswick,  Lower 
p  209 


2io  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

and  Upper  Canada.  The  population  was  to  be  found 
only  on  the  coasts  and  along  the  navigable  rivers.  The 
sole  method  of  communication  was  water  by  summer 
and  road  by  winter,  and  there  was  practically  no  inter- 
communication between  the  provinces.  The  land  was 
being  reclaimed  from  the  primeval  forest  and  agriculture 
was  in  a  primitive  condition.  West  of  Lake  Ontario 
the  whole  country  was  practically  under  the  control  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  a  condition  of  affairs 
that  lasted  till  the  gold  discoveries ;  and  though  incor- 
porated in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1871,  it  was  not 
until  the  great  Canadian  Pacific  railway  was  carried 
across  the  continent,  in  1885,  that  British  Columbia  was 
really  taken  into  the  Canadian  family  and  became  a  liv- 
ing part  of  the  British  Empire.  Thus  arose  a  United 
Canada. 

To-day  the  trade  of  Canada  is  nearly  ,£80,000,000 
sterling  annually,  a  great  manufacturing  industry  is 
increasing  rapidly,  agriculture  expands  steadily,  and 
large  quantities  of  timber  and  food  are  yearly  exported, 
chiefly  to  the  United  Kingdom.  The  natural  resources 
in  forests,  mines,  and  fisheries  are  being  developed,  and 
are  likely  to  receive  a  great  impetus  from  the  opening 
of  the  Pacific,  especially  when  British  capital  is  more 
freely  invested  in  British  Columbia. 

It  is  with  the  Pacific  side  of  Canada  that  we  are  now 
concerned.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  so  recent  is 
the  knowledge  of  this  coast  that  it  was  absolutely 
unknown  until  Captain  Cook  reconnoitred  it  in  1778, 
being  sent  to  find  the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  north- 
west passage  which  was  then  firmly  believed  to  exist. 
Captain  Cook's  investigations  were  cut  short  by  his 
murder  at  Hawaii,  whither  he  had  gone  to  refit  his  ves- 


CANADA   AND   THE    PACIFIC  211 

sels,  but  it  was  the  report  carried  by  one  of  hiso  succes- 
sors in  command,  which  led  some  English  merchants  on 
the  China  side  to  begin  a  trade  in  furs  with  Alaska  and 
with  the  Pacific  coast  generally.  Then  English  traders 
under  various  flags  began  to  find  their  way  to  these 
distant  shores,  and  two  ships  sent  by  the  enterprising 
merchants  of  Boston  found  an  Englishman,  Meares, 
building  a  ship  and  a  storehouse  in  Nootka  Sound,  the 
beautiful  natural  harbour  on  Vancouver  island.  A  com- 
pany was  started  in  1788  in  London  to  deal  with  the 
fur  trade,  and  all  these  doings  aroused  the  interest  of 
Spain,  who  claimed  the  coast  up  to  the  Russian  territory 
of  Alaska.  Two  Spanish  war-ships  arrived  at  Nootka 
Sound  and  seized  Meares'  ships  and  houses,  but  a  war 
between  Britain  and  Spain  was  averted,  and  by  the 
Treaty  of  the  Escurial  Great  Britain  was  reinstated, 
the  Spanish  flag  being  finally  struck  and  that  of  Britain 
hoisted  in  1795.  Captain  Vancouver,  sent  out  to  rein- 
state Meares,  gave  his  name  to  the  island  and  explored 
the  coast  very  thoroughly. 

But  British  Columbia  owes  its  discovery  not  only  to 
the  traders  who  landed  on  her  coasts,  but  to  the  hardy 
and  intrepid  trappers  and  explorers  who  had  gradually 
worked  their  way  from  east  to  west  of  the  great  conti- 
nent. The  North- West  Trading  Company  from  Montreal 
sent  out  pioneers,  and  as  early  as  1 793  Mackenzie  crossed 
the  Great  Divide.  Forts  were  established  in  various 
parts,  and  the  work  of  discovery  went  on,  but  it  was  not 
till  1843  that  the  Company,  driven  from  their  Fort  Van- 
couver headquarters  on  the  mainland  by  the  dispute  with 
the  United  States  as  to  the  boundary,  established  a  set- 
tlement at  Victoria  on  Vancouver  island.  A  couple  of 
years  later  arrived  the  first  ship  from  England  to  trade 


212  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

direct  with  the  new  port.  The  North- West  Company 
had  long  since  been  merged  into  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  and  this  powerful  organisation  practically 
monopolised  all  the  trade,  while  they  established  law 
and  order  in  their  settlements,  and  in  every  way  pro- 
moted the  best  interests  of  the  country  they  had  acquired 
for  the  British  Crown. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  drew  a  great  rush 
of  men  to  this  side  of  the  Pacific,  and  a  little  later  came 
the  finds  on  the  Fraser  river.  For  a  time  there  was  a 
great  influx,  not  of  the  most  desirable  character,  for  the 
disappointed  and  rejected  miners  of  California  made  a 
dash  for  the  new  fields.  But  from  the  first  British  Co- 
lumbia has  been  celebrated  for  the  law  and  order  pre- 
vailing in  her  territories,  a  fact  no  doubt  largely  due  to 
the  discipline  prevailing  among  the  first  settlers  and  to 
the  calibre  of  the  few  men  in  authority  at  the  time.  It 
is  told  of  Sir  Matthew  Begbie,  the  first  Chief  Justice  of 
British  Columbia,  that  at  the  beginning  of  his  career  he 
called  the  miners  together  in  each  place  and  said  to 
them:  "  Boys,  in  this  camp  there  is  going  to  be  order  — 
or  shooting!"  His  rigid  and  fearless  administration  of 
the  law  struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  evil-doers,  and  so 
successful  was  he  that  even  in  the  early  days,  when  in 
the  neighbouring  territory  of  California  lawlessness  was 
rife,  a  man  could  travel  in  British  Columbia  without 
weapons,  save  as  a  defence  from  wild  beasts. 

The  rapid  increase  of  population  led  to  the  cancelling 
of  the  grants  made  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  ind 
the  territory  became  two  colonies,  Vancouver  island 
and  British  Columbia.  The  first  Royal  Governor  sent 
out  was  given  no  salary,  being  merely  promised  one 
thousand  acres  of  land,  but  he  found  the  position  impos- 


CANADA  AND   THE   PACIFIC  213 

sible  since  the  country  was  practically  governed  by  the 
Chief  Factor  Douglas,  and  accordingly  resigned,  while 
Douglas  became  Governor  both  of  Vancouver  and  the 
mainland.  After  his  retirement  the  colonies  had  sepa- 
rate governments,  but  in  1866  were  united  under  the 
name  of  British  Columbia,  and  five  years  later  this  was 
incorporated  with  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Little  need 
be  said  of  the  various  boundary  disputes  which  agi- 
tated this  part  of  the  world  for  a  considerable  period 
and  more  than  once  nearly  led  to  open  ruptures.  It 
was  not  until  the  end  of  the  fifties  that  these  questions 
were  disposed  of. 

The  magnificent  territory  known  as  British  Columbia, 
with  an  area  equal  to  France,  Holland,  Italy,  and  Bel- 
gium, with  one  thousand  miles  of  seaboard  and  fine 
harbours  in  profusion ;  with  marvellous  resources  in  its 
soil ;  with  great  treasures  in  its  waters ;  with  wonderful 
forests ;  with  great  mineral  wealth  awaiting  develop- 
ment, and  with  a  climate  which  produces  a  race  akin  to 
that  of  New  Zealand,  is  destined  to  grow  into  a  great 
State.  Situated,  too,  on  the  Pacific  slope  of  Canada  it 
is  admirably  placed  for  the  purposes  of  ocean  communi- 
cation with  the  Russian  territories  in  Siberia  and  Man- 
churia, with  Japan  and  Northern  China,  and  in  a  minor 
degree  with  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Pacific 
islands  generally.  No  one  who  has  seen  anything  of 
British  America  and  who  thinks  of  what  has  been  accom- 
plished within  the  past  fifty  years  or  so  in  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  the  United  States  can  entertain  any  doubt 
as  to  the  great  future  before  British  Columbia. 

The  country  has  everything  that  has  made  the  little 
sea-girt  island  in  the  West  the  centre  of  a  great  world- 


2i4  THE  MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

empire,  —  coal,  iron  and  other  minerals,  waterways  to 
the  coast,  seaboard,  —  and  she  has  what  Britain  did  not 
possess  when  she  began  her  era  of  prosperity,  gold  to 
give  the  initial  impetus,  a  vast  reserve  of  timber,  and 
a  great  fishing  industry.  All  that  is  wanted  is  capital 
and  labour.  There  is  no  reason  why  within  a  reasonable 
though  not  measurable  limit  of  time  British  Columbia 


A    LAKE    IN    THE    ROCKIES 


should  not  forge  ahead  and  become  a  great  ship-building 
and  manufacturing  country,  as  the  American  terri- 
tory further  south  is  destined  shortly  to  be.  The 
scenery,  too,  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior,  is  such  as 
would  draw  thousands  of  visitors  if  only  these  shores 
were  more  accessible.  The  panorama  is  one  of  the  finest 
and  most  varied  in  the  world,  and  few  sensations  are 
comparable  to  the  first  sight  of  the  British  Columbian 
coast  as  one  returns  from  the  East.  The  dark,  pine- 


CANADA  AND   THE   PACIFIC 


215 


clothed  shores,  the  snow-covered  coast  ranges,  the  num- 
berless islands,  the  deep  fjords,  the  mountain  canons, 
and  the  glaciers  in  the  background,  —  and  these  in  pro- 
fusion through  such  an  extent  of  territory,  —  are  not  to 
be  matched  elsewhere.  The  climate,  as  a  whole,  is 
milder  than  east  of  the  Rockies,  but  both  the  mildness 
of  the  coast  and  the  intensity  of  the  cold  in  the  interior 
have  been  exaggerated.  Mild  and  equable  in  the  south, 
as  one  approaches  the  north  the  climate  becomes  colder. 
Generally,  the  climate  is  not  unlike  that  of  Northern 
Europe,  lying  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude. 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  forest-fires  which  have 
cleared  large  interior  regions,  the  greatest  compact 
area  of  available  timber  on  the  North  American  con- 
tinent is  to  be  found  in  British  Columbia.  Of  the 
382,000  square  miles  of  area,  no  less  than  three-fourths 
are  wooded.  The  density  of  the  forests  is  extraordinary, 
as  much  as  500,000  cubic  feet  having  been  taken  from  a 
single  acre.  The  lumber  industry,  already  of  great 
dimensions,  is  chiefly  with  the  United  Kingdom,  China, 
and  Australia ;  but  the  amount  cut  is  scarcely  appreci- 
able when  the  forest  wealth  of  the  whole  province  is  con- 
sidered. Although  the  reserve  of  timber  wealth  is  so 
great,  it  would  be  wise  to  pay  immediate  attention  to 
forest  preservation,  reforestation,  and  diversifying,  with 
a  view  to  the  future.  Wood-pulp,  already  so  flourishing 
an  industry  in  Eastern  Canada,  should  do  well  in  British 
Columbia,  where  the  Douglas  fir  abounds  everywhere, 
hemlock  in  the  north,  and  there  is  abundant  water-power, 
so  far  very  little  utilised. 

The  mining  industry  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  it  is 
safe  to  predict  a  great  future  for  it.  Each  of  the  four 


216  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

mountain  ranges  traversing  the  country  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  contains  minerals  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  be  profitably  mined,  and  the  valleys  on  the  western 
side  of  the  chief  range  of  the  Rockies  are  gold-bearing 
throughout.  Mining  and  even  prospecting  have  been 
carried  on  so  far  only  within  range  of  the  railways,  for 
beyond  them  mining  operations  are  impossible ;  a  fact 
which,  with  its  general  isolation,  accounts  for  the  com- 
paratively small  progress  the  country  has  yet  made 
in  mining.  The  Yukon  district  —  administered  from 
Ottawa,  it  is  to  be  noted  —  to  which  there  was  such  a 
rush  a  few  years  ago,  has  not  realised  the  expectations 
raised,  and  more  money  has  been  sunk  there  than  will 
ever  come  out  of  it.  But  still  the  Yukon  and  North- 
West  territory  produced  in  1900  over  $22,000,000  worth 
of  gold,  and  British  Columbia  close  on  $5,000,000. 
It  was  in  1858  that  "placer"  gold  was  first  found  on 
the  lower  Fraser  river,  and  a  couple  of  years  later  near  the 
head-waters  were  found  the  very  rich  "placers "of  the 
Cariboo  district  which  produced  gold  to  the  value  of 
$10,000,000,  drawing  thousands  of  miners  from  Cali- 
fornia, then  beginning  to  fail,  as  well  as  from  elsewhere. 
In  1899  fresh  "placer"  workings  were  discovered  in  the 
Atlin  district,  a  connecting  link  between  the  Cariboo 
and  the  Yukon  fields.  In  later  years  the  earlier  methods, 
the  pick  and  shovel  and  pack-animals,  have  been 
replaced  by  machinery  and  water-power,  which  can  now 
be  introduced  owing  to  improvements  in  transport ;  but 
for  hydraulic  mining  large  capital  is  necessary,  and  com- 
panies are  only  now  installing  the  necessary  machinery 
and  equipment. 

So    long    as    "  placer "    mining    could    be    profitably 
worked  by  the  individual  digger,  little  attention  was  paid 


CANADA  AND   THE  PACIFIC  217 

to  lode  mining,  which  required  so  much  capital  for  work- 
ing and  proper  transportation  facilities.  It  was  not 
until  the  opening  of  the  Canadian-Pacific  that  a  main 
artery  of  communication  was  available,  and  even  the 
prospectors  could  penetrate  only  short  distances  from 
the  trunk  line.  The  work  of  testing  and  develop- 
ment has  been  necessarily  slow,  and  it  is  only  within 
the  past  seven  years  that  lode  mines  have  been  pro- 
ductive, but  they  have  steadily  increased  until  in  1900 
the  output  reached  a  value  of  over  ,£2,000,000.  The 
general  conditions  for  mining  are  now  greatly  improved, 
and  the  reduction  of  the  mining  tax  from  ten  to  five  per 
cent,  was  a  politic  concession  on  the  part  of  Government 
and  has  been  of  great  service  to  the  mining  indus- 
try. The  total  mineral  production  for  1900  was  over 
,£3,200,000. 

Although  British  Columbia  owes  its  prosperity  largely 
to  the  existence  of  the  precious  metal,  the  discovery  of 
which  has  peopled  so  many  parts  of  the  world's  surface, 
she  is  fortunate  in  possessing  many  other  resources,  and  of 
these  coal  is  one  of  the  most  important.  When  we  look 
forward  to  the  future  of  the  Pacific  and  the  enormous 
increase  in  the  traffic  of  that  ocean  which  must  shortly 
take  place,  it  is  obvious  that  Great  Britain,  to  hold  her 
own  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean,  will  require  not  only 
ships  but  the  fuel  without  which  merchandise  cannot 
be  conveyed  from  shore  to  shore.  The  coal-fields  of 
British  Columbia  occupy  an  unique  position  on  the 
Pacific  seaboard  of  America.  Coal,  it  is  true,  has  been 
prospected  for  and  found  in  small  quantities  in  Oregon 
and  Washington,  but  no  such  fields  as  the  British 
Columbian  and  Vancouver  ones  are  known  to  exist,  nor 
does  the  geological  formation  lead  one  to  expect  that 


2i8  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

other  fields  may  be  discovered.  At  present  coal  is 
worked  on  Vancouver  island,  and  in  a  district  west  of 
the  Rockies,  but  coal  in  abundance  and  of  excellent 
quality  is  found,  in  close  proximity  to  both  rivers  and 
seaboard,  all  over  British  Columbia.  At  present  about 
half  the  output  goes  to  California  and  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington, and  as  this  is  the  case  the  rapid  development  of 
the  American  States  will  also  help  forward  the  progress 
of  the  British  Colony.  The  labour  difficulty,  however, 
crops  up  again,  and  the  perfectly  legitimate  sentiment  of 
the  colonists  in  desiring  to  keep  their  country  for  the 
white  man  is  likely  to  retard  progress  here  as  in  Aus- 
tralia and  California.  The  Dominion  Government  has, 
however,  disallowed  the  Act  imposing  restrictions  on  Jap- 
anese which  made  it  compulsory  to  read  and  write  at  least 
one  European  language.  To  avoid  troubles  it  will  be  ad- 
visable to  check  the  flow  of  alien  immigration  into  Brit- 
ish Columbia.  But  how  is  this  to  be  done  ?  There  seems 
to  be  no  real  solution  for  the  difficulty,  and  it  is  a  case 
of  choosing  between  evils.  The  number  entering  last 
year  was  over  9000,  and  more  than  6000  came  in  transit. 
The  Chinese  are  rapidly  decreasing. 

Gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  coal l  are  the  chief  min- 

1  Coal  produced : 

British  Columbia  .        .        .        .         .       1,612,346  tons 

Nova  Scotia  ....      3,357,901     „ 

(Exports  906,215  tons) 
Value  of  gold  produced  (1900)  : 

Yukon  and  N.W.  territory     .         .         .     22,275,000  dol. 
British  Columbia  .         .         ...         .      4,732,105     „ 

Value  of  silver  produced  (1900)  : 

British  Columbia  .         .         .         silver      2,309,200    „ 

lead      2,691,877    „ 
Copper  produced  (1900)  : 

British  Columbia 9,997^080  Ibs. 

Ontario 6,728,000    „ 


CANADA   AND   THE   PACIFIC 


219 


erals  worked  in  this  territory,  but  there  are  several  others, 
and  of  late  years  capital  has  been  invested  in  smelting- 
works  which  will  greatly  aid  the  development  of  the 
mining  industry. 

Nature  was  in  a  bounteous  mood  when  she  fashioned 
this  quarter  of  the  globe.  Not  only  do  the  picturesque 
mountains,  clad  in  their  wealth  of  forests,  hide  rich  stores 


A   CATCH   OF   FISH   ON   THE   FRASER   RIVER 

of  minerals  for  the  use  of  man,  but  the  swift,  turbu- 
lent rivers,  and  the  blue  ocean  warmed  with  the  Japan 
current,  contain  countless  shoals  of  fish,  in  particular 
the  king  of  fish,  the  delicious  salmon,  whose  rich,  red 
flesh  can  be  packed  in  tins  and  sent  all  over  the  world. 
The  salmon  come  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  to  spawn 
in  the  upper  reaches  of  the  rivers,  and  at  such  times  so 
dense  is  the  rushing  mass  of  them,  that  it  is  almost  pos- 
sible to  walk  across  the  river  over  the  "  pack,"  as  it  is 


220  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

graphically  termed.  The  industry  which  has  arisen  out 
of  this  superabundance  is  rapidly  increasing,  having 
risen  in  the  twenty-five  years  it  has  been  in  existence 
from  a  modest  10,000  cans  to  9,600,000.  The  deep-sea 
fisheries  have  been  partly  exploited.  At  times  as  many 
as  2000  fishing-boats  are  to  be  seen  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Eraser  river;  but  the  wealth  of  the  sea  is  by  no  means 
laid  under  full  contribution,  though  the  total  value  of 
fish  and  seals l  is  estimated  at  over  $5,000,000  and  some 
20,000  men  find  employment  in  the  fisheries. 

With  all  these  advantages,  the  progress  of  British 
Columbia  is  slow  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  adja- 
cent American  States,  and  her  population  is  absurdly 
small  in  comparison  with  her  area  and  resources,  being 
onlv  some  two  hundred  thousand.  A  chief  reason  for 

j 

this  lies  in  the  difficulty  of  farming,  except  for  men  with 
capital  to  invest  in  clearing  the  ground  and  other  pre- 
liminaries, and  even  when  this  is  done  the  lack  of  com- 
munications makes  farming  unprofitable  because  of  the 
distance  to  markets.  Settlers  from  Europe  coming  across 
Canada  prefer  to  remain  in  the  wide  open  plains  which 
they  find  east  of  the  Rockies,  and  even  there  farming  is 
by  no  means  a  royal  road  to  fortune.  The  advantages 
of  the  coast  climate  do  not  weigh  as  heavily  as  they 
might,  since  against  them  the  colonist  puts  the  increased 
distance  from  the  old  country,  the  lack  of  communica- 
tions, and  the  harder  work  involved  in  clearing  the  land. 
The  more  desirable  portions  of  the  land  have  already 
been  taken  up,  the  usual  mistake  having  been  made  of 
granting  too  large  areas,  and  many  landholders  are  cut- 

1  Value  of  fish  produced,  1899:  British  Columbia,  5,214,073  dollars,  exclu- 
sive of  fish  used  by  Indian  population  of  a  probable  value  of  5,000,000  dollars ; 
Nova  Scotia,  7,347,603  dollars. 


CANADA   AND   THE   PACIFIC  221 

ting  up  their  estates.  The  agricultural  problem  will  not 
be  solved  until  both  roads  and  railways  are  carried  out 
on  an  extensive  scale,  and  the  Dominion  Government 
might  well  take  a  lesson  from  Russia  in  the  way  she 
invests  capital  and  provides  facilities  for  the  settlement 
and  opening  up  of  her  distant  provinces. 

Ocean  communications  are  increasing  rapidly,  and 
ought  to  give  an  impetus  to  domestic  development. 
The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  runs  the  beau- 
tiful "  Empress  "  boats  between  Vancouver,  Japan,  and 
China  every  three  weeks  in  summer  and  once  a  month 
in  winter,  with  occasional  supplementary  boats,  and  has 
also  three  steamers  on  the  Australasian  line  with  a 
monthly  service  calling  at  Honolulu,  Brisbane,  and  Syd- 
ney. The  Japan  line  is. to  be  extended  to  Vladivostock, 
with  a  view  to  sharing  the  great  trade  with  Siberia  and 
Manchuria  which  is  about  to  spring  up.  There  is  a 
feeling  in  British  Columbia  that  the  cutting  of  a  trans- 
isthmian  canal  will  be  prejudicial  to  her  interests,  as  it 
may  divert  trade,  which  would  otherwise  have  come 
eastwards  to  Vancouver,  to  the  Eastern  States  and  to 
Europe  direct.  The  writer  has  always  held,  however, 
that  the  more  wide  and  general  such  communications 
become  the  greater  will  be  the  bulk  of  traffic  and  the 
number  of  travellers,  and  that  every  part  of  the  world 
which  has  attractions  to  offer  will  benefit  rather  than 
lose  by  the  annihilation  of  distance  which  is  going  on. 
With  her  great  resources,  her  unique  position  and  ten 
years'  start  (even  if  the  canal  be  commenced  at  once), 
British  Columbia  has  nothing  to  fear  from  a  trans-isth- 
mian canal. 

That  British  Columbians  are  not  blind  to  the  pressing 
need  of  their  colony  is  evidenced  by  the  many  railway 


222 


THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


projects  on  foot,  the  chief  of  which  is  at  present  a  trunk 
line  from  south  to  north,  extending  through  the  great 
interior  plateau  as  far  north  as  the  mineral  resources  are 
available,  even,  perhaps,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon 
in  Alaska.  The  connection  of  Russian  Asia  and  the 
United  States  territory  in  Alaska  may  some  day  be 
accomplished  by  means  of  a  tunnel  across  the  Behring 


NEW   WESTMINSTER 


Straits,  when  railways  penetrate  those  remote  regions. 
This  ambitious  project  is  at  present  visionary,  and  the 
urgent  need  exists  for  a  network  of  local  lines,  which 
could  be  worked  at  a  small  cost,  to  bring  the  interior 
districts  into  touch  with  each  other  and  with  the  coast, 
and  to  tie  them  all  on  to  the  great  trunk  line  of  Canada. 
The  British  Columbians  complain  that  the  Dominion 
Government  are  unwilling  to  give  assistance  in  this 
matter,  which  they  consider  they  have  earned  by  heavy 


CANADA  AND   THE   PACIFIC  223 

customs  dues  and  taxation,  but  there  is  "  much  to  be 
said  on  both  sides,"  since  the  Dominion  has  been  put 
to  considerable  expense,  both  during  the  early  years  of 
the  province  and  in  the  recent  gold  rushes,  in  maintain- 
ing order  in  the  gold  territories  and  providing  the  nec- 
essary means  of  communication. 

The  cable  from  Vancouver,  over  which  there  has  been 
so  much  controversy,  will  encounter  serious  opposition 
from  at  least  two  quarters.  These  are  the  Eastern 
Extension  Company's  cable  already  mentioned  and 
the  American  Pacific  cable  soon  to  be  laid  from  Mon- 
terey, near  San  Francisco,  to  Manila  via  Honolulu,  whence 
a  line  is  likely  to  be  laid  ere  long  to  New  Caledonia, 
already  in  cable  connection  with  Queensland.  From 
Manila  the  line  will  be  carried  to  China  before  many 
years  are  over.  Commercially,  a  British  cable  via 
Hawaii  would  have  been  less  costly  and  more  effective, 
but  there  are  strategic  advantages  in  the  cable  not 
passing  through  foreign  territory,  even  that  of  the 
United  States.  Curious  to  say,  messages  through  Can- 
ada from  Britain  are  at  present  actually  sent  across 
the  Commercial  Cable  Company's  Atlantic  cables  (an 
American  Company),  and  270  miles  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  railway  run  through  the  State  of  Maine. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  order  which 
has  always  prevailed  in  British  Columbian  towns.  Vic- 
toria, on  Vancouver  island,  and  New  Westminster  on  the 
mainland,  are  laid  out  with  precision  and  neatness,  lighted 
with  electric  light,  and  boast  good  schools  and  colleges, 
handsome  public  buildings,  hotels,  and  churches.  Edu- 
cation is  amply  provided  for  throughout  the  province, 
since  schools  are  free  and  undenominational,  and  a  certifi- 
cated teacher  must  be  provided  in  any  district  where  there 


224  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

are  fifteen  children  between  six  and  sixteen  years  of  age. 
The  public  spirit  of  the  citizens  of  British  Columbia 
deserves  a  special  mention,  and  domestic  affairs  are 
administered  with  an  uprightness  which  makes  the 
municipal  and  local  governments  compare  favourably 
with  those  of  any  other  State. 

There  is  a  marked  and  curious  difference  in  the 
people  of  this  province,  as  compared  with  the  Canadians 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Rockies  or  the  Americans  of 
adjacent  States,  but  the  difference  is  largely  accounted 
for  by  climate,  which  plays  so  large  a  part  in  the  forma- 
tion of  character.  The  dweller  on  the  wide,  free  plains 
of  Eastern  Canada,  as  late  as  May,  drops  over  the  Rockies 
from  a  land  covered  with  snow  into  the  mild  coast 
region,  —  a  springtime  as  full  of  blossom  as  our  own. 
The  Californian,  from  his  richly  covered  fruit  orchards, 
warmed  all  the  year  round  by  an  almost  tropical  sun, 
goes  north  and  from  the  mild  —  but  to  him  distinctly 
temperate  —  coast  region,  sees  for  the  first  time  on  the 
mountain-tops  white  caps  of  snow  glistening  in  the 
sunshine,  while  the  dark  belts  of  fir  forests  stretch 
down  to  the  blue  water's  edge.  There  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  British  Columbia  could  produce  a  race 
equal  in  physique  to  the  New  Zealanders,  with  splendid 
nerves  and  full  of  sap  as  young  oaks,  like  the  best  stock 
from  the  old  country,  and  unlike  the  keen,  nervous 
American  or  the  tall,  thin,  excitable,  and  yet  languid 
Californian. 

The  arrangement  of  a  Canadian  fast  Atlantic  service; 
the  opening  up  of  the  west  by  local  lines ;  the  laying  of 
a  British  cable  across  the  Pacific  with  lowered  rates  and 
certainty  of  despatch ;  the  inevitable  development  of 
steamer  lines  in  all  directions  across  the  Pacific  —  all 


CANADA   AND   THE   PACIFIC  225 

point  to  great  opportunities  for  British  Columbia  in  the 
future.  The  utilisation  will  largely  depend  on  the  energy 
and  enterprise  of  her  people,  who  with  such  a  climate 
and  such  resources  should  certainly  be  able  to  rise  to  the 
occasion. 

Among  the  possibilities  of  the  country  is  that  of  be- 
coming a  great  ship-building  centre,  since  not  only  is 
wood  found,  but  iron  and  coal  admirably  situated  and 
in  great  abundance  near  water-ways,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  other  manufactures  should  not  be  eventually 
started.  The  magnificent  harbours  are  an  asset  not  to 
be  overlooked,  since  there  are  none  to  be  compared  with 
them  on  the  whole  coast-line.  At  Esquimault  there  is 
a  large  naval  station,  the  harbour  being  an  ideal  one 
for  the  purpose,  with  ample  anchorage,  dry  docks,  and  a 
supply  of  coal  close  by. 

When  we  come  to  a  consideration  of  this  territory 
we  are  immediately  struck  by  its  position  as  regards  the 
great  markets  of  China  and  Japan,  and  also  of  Eastern 
Siberia  and  Manchuria  when  those  great  regions  are 
developed  and  settled.  From  Vancouver  is  the  nearest 
and  most  direct  route  across  the  Pacific  to  these  coun- 
tries, and  had  British  Columbia  received  the  attention 
it  merits,  and  been  assisted  by  the  British  Government 
to  take  its  proper  rank  in  point  of  population  and  indus- 
tries, the  attitude  recently  taken  in  Britain  towards  the 
Far  East  would  certainly  have  been  stiffened  by  a  strong 
colonial  feeling  from  the  Pacific  coast  of  Canada.  There 
is  no  reason  why  British  Columbia  should  not  compete 
on  favourable  terms  with  the  United  States  in  the  great 
Asiatic  markets,  which  are  on  the  eve  of  an  era  of  devel- 
opment. What  is  wanted  are  men  and  money ;  neither 
will  be  wasted.  When  one  contemplates  the  sums 


226  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

spent,  for  instance,  on  railways  through  tropical  swamps 
in  East  Africa,  it  certainly  seems  a  matter  for  regret 
that  this  eminently  white  man's  country  should  not  be 
exploited  to  the  full  of  its  capacity  and  made,  not  only  a 
fine  field  for  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  Young  Eng- 
land, which  is  often  driven  to  waste  valuable  lives  in 
unhealthy  and  useless  spots,  but  also  one  of  the  bulwarks 
of  the  nation  in  the  coming  struggle. 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS    AND    HONG    KONG 

IT  has  been  said  already  that  Great  Britain,  besides 
her  Pacific  seaboard  on  the  American  continent  and  her 
great  Australasian  colonies  (within  whose  sphere  of 
influence  must  be  grouped  the  Fiji  and  other  islands 
and  British  New  Guinea)  possesses  valuable  pieds-a- 
terre  on  the  Asiatic  side.  Leaving  aside  for  the  second 
North  Borneo  —  that  little-known  and  much-neglected 
estate  —  the  two  great  trade-distributing  centres  of 
Singapore  and  Hong  Kong  occupy  altogether  unique 
positions  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  Nowhere  else  in 
the  world  under  similar  conditions  can  be  found  com- 
mercial and  strategic  posts  of  equal  value.  Both  are 
situated  on  islands,  but  whereas  Hong  Kong  is  steep  and 
rocky  Singapore  lies  low  and  is  green  and  fertile.  Both 
are  important  as  shipping  centres,  but  Hong  Kong, 
although  the  medium  for  a  considerable  Chinese  trade, 
is  to  a  great  extent  cut  off  from  its  natural  hinter- 
land, the  great  southern  trading  centres  of  China, 
while  Singapore  is  the  outlet  for  the  flourishing  trade  of 
the  greater  portion  of  the  Malay  peninsula.  Hong  Kong 
lies  next  a  great  undeveloped  estate  in  Chinese  hands, 
Singapore  next  a  territory  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
British.  Notwithstanding  these  and  other  dissimilari- 
ties in  the  conditions  of  the  two  places  they  are  gen- 
erally associated  in  the  minds  of  most  Englishmen,  and 

227 


228  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

many  circumstances  render  this  association  natural. 
Both  present  the  anomaly  of  cities  which  in  population 
are  mainly  Chinese  but  are  entirely  governed  by  the 
English,  both  are  places  of  call  for  the  globe-trotter  as 
well  as  the  merchant,  and  both  have  developed  with  a 
rapidity  unusual  in  the  leisurely  Orient. 

Singapore  owes  its  existence  to  the  energetic  mind  of 
Stamford  Raffles,  who,  after  his  recall  from  Java  and  his 
period  of  office  in  Benkulen,  was  on  the  look-out  for 
some  place  from  which  England  would  be  able  to  pro- 
tect her  Eastern  commerce  after  the  Dutch  had  been 
re-established  in  the  East  Indies.  In  1819  the  island, 
whose  name  "  Singapore  "  is  from  the  Sanscrit  Sinhapura 
and  signifies  "  Lion  City,"  was  taken  over  by  Great 
Britain,  being  at  that  time  covered  with  primeval  forest 
and  inhabited  only  by  a  few  poor  Malay  fishers  and 
pirates.  There  is  a  tradition  of  a  large  trading  city  hav- 
ing existed  on  the  island  in  former  times  but,  though  it 
is  probable  that  there  was  originally  a  Javanese  settle- 
ment whose  people  ultimately  were  driven  by  other  Java- 
nese invaders  to  Malacca,  there  is  no  proof  that  "  Sin- 
hapura" ever  attained  to  size  or  importance.  Neither 
were  the  conditions  of  the  island  as  observed  by  the 
first  English  inhabitants  of  a  character  to  support  such 
a  belief. 

Few  places  possess  more  natural  advantages  as  far 
as  beauty  and  fertility  are  concerned.  Situated  in  the 
heart  of  the  tropics,  the  climate  is  hot;  but  there  is  an 
abundant  rainfall  at  all  times  of  the  year,  the  air  is 
always  moist,  and  the  climate  has  been  aptly  de- 
scribed as  that  of  a  recently  watered  greenhouse. 
There  is  hardly  any  variation  throughout  the  year,  a 
fact  which  makes  it  extremely  trying,  especially  to  chil- 


THE   STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG  KONG     229 

dren,  who  show  by  their  pallor  and  languid  movements 
how  much  they  miss  the  stimulation  of  a  real  winter. 
The  deadly  monotony  of  such  a  climate,  the  same  thing 
every  day  in  the  year,  is  indescribable ;  yet  the  residents  are 
often  enthusiastic  about  the  place,  and  it  must  be  owned 
that  there  are  compensations.  The  island  is  covered 
with  beautiful  greenery  and  it  is  always  summer  —  the 
trees  never  lose  their  leaves  simultaneously  and  fruit 
ripens  continuously.  Singapore,  well  laid  out,  is  a  hand- 
some town,  with  a  graceful  cathedral,  fine  hotels,  clubs, 
shops,  banks,  and  public  buildings.  The  suburbs  are 
even  more  attractive ;  pretty  bungalows  surrounded  with 
flower-gardens  stand  on  either  side  of  broad,  shady 
roads,  while  the  larger  houses  in  big  grounds  are 
placed  on  high  levels  wherever  possible.  The  island 
lies  uniformly  low,  except  at  one  point  where  a  small 
hill  breaks  the  monotony  and  standing  well  exposed 
to  sea  breezes  enjoys  a  much  cooler  atmosphere.  The 
great  drawback  to  Singapore  is  that  there  is  no  place 
within  easy  distance  where  the  inhabitants  can  go  for 
change  or  to  recruit.  The  mountains  of  Java  would  be 
ideal  but  for  drawbacks  hereafter  to  be  stated,  and 
though  there  are  healthy  spots  in  the  hills  of  the  Malay 
peninsula  they  are  not  suitable  as  sanitaria  and  are  not 
very  convenient.  The  solitary  hill,  Bukit  Timur  by 
name,  has  therefore  become  the  honeymooning  spot  for 
newly  wedded  Singaporeans,  who  must  provide  them- 
selves with  tinned  provisions  and  camp  out  in  the  little 
dak  bungalow  at  the  top. 

A  wonderful  mixture  of  races  is  one  of  the  most  not- 
able features  of  Singapore,  where  the  stream  of  Chinese 
and  Indian  immigrants  meets  on  Malay  soil.  The  Chi- 
nese quarter,  which  grows  larger  every  year,  swarms  with 


230  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

pig-tailed,  blue-frocked  Celestials,  and  they  are  in  a  major- 
ity in  every  part  of  the  town.  But  through  the  streets  stalk 
tall,  thin,  dusky  natives  of  India,  with  fierce  black  eyes 
and  beards  —  Klings,  as  they  are  locally  called,  whether 
Tamils,  Bengalis,  or  natives  of  other  parts  of  India  — 
swathed  in  white  muslin  draperies,  and  with  a  touch  of 
vivid  colour  in  their  enormous  turbans.  Their  slender 
dark-eyed  women  sway  along  beside  them,  wrapped  in 
wonderful  folds  of  purple  and  green  and  yellow,  with 
tinkling  gold  and  silver  anklets  and  armlets,  and  little 
dark-eyed  children  clothed  only  in  nature's  garb  at  their 
sides.  Or  perhaps  they  are  Hindoos  of  a  higher  caste, 
students  or  clerks,  and  their  costume  is  a  loose-flowing 
white  shirt  and  trousers.  Then  comes  the  big-eyed, 
plump-faced,  olive-tinted  Cingalese,  with  his  sleek  hair 
gathered  into  a  knot  and  an  absurd  circular  comb  orna- 
menting the  crown  of  his  head.  He  is  clad  in  a  white 
skirt  like  the  Malay  sarong — merely  a  wide,  long  strip 
joined  together  at  the  ends,  into  which  he  steps,  and 
drawing  the  extra  fulness  together  in  front  tucks  it 
inside.  The  Malay  himself,  with  his  lean,  brown,  hair- 
less face,  sarong  of  checked  cotton  and  little  round  cap, 
is  in  evidence,  but  always  rather  with  the  air  of  a  spec- 
tator. On  every  hand  yellow,  half-naked  Chinese  coolies 
are  pulling,  hauling,  carrying,  sweating,  and  chattering 
as  though  possessed.  The  roads  and  streets  are  full  of 
rickshaws  pulled  by  Chinamen,  whose  usual  costume  is 
a  shady  hat  and  a  pair  of  blue  drawers.  Many  hand- 
some private  carriages  roll  by,  as  well  as  numerous  small 
conveyances  for  hiring,  both,  by  the  way,  driven  by 
Malays,  for  this  is  a  branch  of  labour  congenial  to  those 
gentlemen.  Some  of  the  finest  private  equipages  are 
owned  by  Chinese,  and  it  is  a  usual  sight  to  see  a  smart 


THE   STRAITS   SETTLEMENTS  AND    HONG   KONG     231 

phaeton  in  which  reclines  a  gentleman  attired  in  a  light 
tweed  suit  and  straw  hat,  and  to  discover  on  nearer  view 
that  he  possesses  also  almond  eyes  and  a  pigtail.  More 
comic  to  the  unaccustomed  is  the  sight  of  John  with  the 
end  of  his  pigtail  tucked  into  a  pocket,  whizzing  by  on  a 
bicycle  writh  his  white  coat  and  loose  sleeves  flapping 
and  a  billycock  hat  crushed  down  over  his  nose.  There 
is  a  society  for  preventing  the  country  from  being  defaced 


IN    THE   BOTANICAL   GARDENS    AT    SINGAPORE 

by  placards,  and  surely  there  might  be  one  to  prevent 
the  Chinaman,  with  his  picturesque  and  comfortable 
national  costume,  from  spoiling  the  landscape  by  adopt- 
ing the  headgear  of  Europeans,  —  especially  the  type 
of  headgear  usually  associated  with  Italian  ice-cream 
venders !  There  is  also  in  Singapore  a  considerable 
Eurasian  population,  chiefly  of  Portuguese  extraction. 
Singapore  possesses  a  rather  neglected  museum,  with 
an  excellent  library,  and  a  beautiful  botanical  garden. 


232  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

The  harbour-works  are  being  extended,  and  the  de- 
fences have  been  strengthened,  the  cost  being  borne 
by  the  Colony,  while  arms  and  armaments  are  supplied 
by  the  Imperial  Government.  The  Straits  Settlements, 
like  Ceylon  and  Hong  Kong,  are  officered  by  a  special 
branch  of  the  Civil  Service  known  as  the  Straits  Settle- 
ment Service,  to  enter  which  the  candidates  pass  very 
much  the  same  examinations  in  open  competition  as 
those  in  the  Indian  branch,  India  being  the  crack  ser- 
vice, by  reason  of  the  superior  pay  and  opportunities. 
There  is  a  garrison  consisting  of  one  battalion  of  native 
infantry  officered  by  Englishmen,  a  small  draft  of  artil- 
lery and  naval  engineers,  and  also  an  armed  police-force 
of  thirty-eight  officers  and  about  two  thousand  men. 
Until  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  South 
Africa  there  had  always  been  an  English  regiment  sta- 
tioned there,  but  owing  to  the  drain  on  men  caused  by 
the  Boer  War  and  the  hostilities  in  China  this  was 
replaced  by  a  native  regiment. 

The  trade  of  the  Straits  Settlements  shows  a  steady 
yearly  increase  and  in  1899  reached  the  great  total  of 
twenty-eight  millions  in  imports  and  twenty-four  millions 
in  exports.  Besides  this  it  possesses  one  of  the  largest 
tin-smelting  works  in  the  world,  31,567  tons  of  ore  hav- 
ing been  converted  into  tin  here  in  1899.  The  tinning 
of  pineapples  is  an  important  industry  of  recent  growth,  the 
markets  of  Europe  and  Australia  being  chiefly  supplied 
from  this  source.  It  must,  however,  be  noticed  that  the 
increase  of  trade,  largely  one  of  distribution,  is  mainly 
with  other  colonies  or  dependencies  and  with  foreign  coun- 
tries, not  with  Great  Britain  herself.  Singapore  ranks  as 
one  of  the  largest  shipping  ports  of  the  world,  having  a 
yearly  tonnage  of  about  seven  millions.  A  chief  reason 


THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG   KONG     233 

for  the  immense  amount  of  trade  done  is  that  Singapore 
and  every  port  in  the  Settlements  (as  well  as  Hong  Kong) 
are  free  and  open,  there  being  neither  import  nor  export 
duties,  —  a  great  contrast  to  any  other  ports  in  the  Far 
East.  A  certain  proportion  of  the  development  of  Sing- 
apore is  no  doubt  also  due  to  her  position  alongside  the 
Malay  States,  which  under  British  control  and  improved 


MALAY   FISHERS,    SINGAPORE 


communications  are  making  great  progress.  The  trade 
of  these  States  in  1900  was  nearly  ten  million  sterling, 
and  the  exports  (chiefly  tin)  are  the  real  produce  of  the 
country,  the  imports  being  for  local  consumption.  There 
is  no  passing  trade,  as  at  Singapore.  The  revenue  has 
grown  in  twenty-six  years  from  ;£  100,000  to  ,£1,500,000. 
The  first  step  made  by  Britain  towards  obtaining  the 
control  of  the  Peninsula  was  the  result  of  the  representa- 
tions made  by  the  master  of  a  merchant  vessel  who  had 


234  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

been  in  the  habit  of  trading  with  the  ports  of  Siam  and 
had  realised  the  necessity  for  a  British  station  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  East  India  Com- 
pany, perceiving  this  necessity  and  following  his  advice, 
upon  payment  of  a  yearly  sum  to  the  Rajah  who  nomi- 
nally was  owner  took  over  the  uninhabited  island  of 
Penang,  to  which  was  afterwards  given  the  name  of 
Prince  of  Wales'  island.  This  merchantman,  whose 
name  was  Francis  Light,  is  one  of  England's  forgotten 
pioneers,  but  he  met  with  more  recognition  than  is  often 
the  due  of  pioneers  at  the  time,  for  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Penang  and  administered  the  colony  until 
his  death.  This  place  increased  rapidly  in  population 
and  prosperity,  many  Malays  seeking  refuge  there  from 
the  disturbances  in  their  own  States,  and  in  1800  the 
territory  facing  it  on  the  mainland  was  also  purchased 
from  the  Rajah  and  christened  Province  Wellesley.  It 
is  curious  to  note  that  the  price  paid  was  one  penny  an 
acre,  which,  low  as  it  seems,  was  probably  more  than 
its  value  to  the  owner.  In  1824  the  town  of  Malacca 
(which  had  been  a  Dutch  port  for  154  years,  until  dur- 
ing the  war  of  the  French  Revolution  it  fell  to  Britain, 
being  again  given  back  to  the  Dutch  in  1818)  was  ex- 
changed for  the  post  of  Benkulen  in  Sumatra.  In  1867 
the  Malay  dependencies,  till  that  time  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  India,  were  constituted  a  separate  Crown  Col- 
ony, a  step  which  inaugurated  an  era  of  rapid  progress. 
The  rest  of  the  Peninsula  consisted  of  States  under 
native  Sultans  or  Rajahs.  The  sparse  population  could  not 
be  estimated,  but  the  conditions  of  life — the  oppression  of 
the  rulers,  general  lawlessness  and  constant  petty  feuds  — 
made  the  country  a  great  contrast  to  the  flourishing  and 
populous  British  settlements  at  Penang,  Malacca,  and 


THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG  KONG     235 

Singapore.  The  object  lesson  was  not  wasted  on  the 
Malays.  In  1874  three  of  the  States  appealed  to  Great 
Britain  to  aid  them  in  establishing  peace  and  prosperity 
within  their  own  borders.  The  request  was  granted,  and 
Residents  were  sent  to  each  State  to  "  advise  "  concerning 
its  affairs,  —  with  the  distinct  understanding,  however, 
that  their  advice  must  be  followed.  In  1875  an  outbreak 
took  place  in  Perak,  the  Resident  was  murdered,  and 
British  troops  had  to  be  sent  into  the  country.  Since 
that  time  the  Peninsula  has  gone  forward  with  leaps  and 
bounds,  and  other  States  have  entered  into  amicable  ar- 
rangements with  Britain,  the  federation  of  the  States 
being  accomplished  in  1895.  The  knowledge  that  under 
British  protection  order  was  maintained,  justice  could 
be  counted  on,  life  and  property  would  be  safe  and 
wages  regular,  attracted  the  Chinese,  and  with  their  help 
the  enormous  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  has  been 
exploited.  Roads  have  been  made  and  railroads  are  fol- 
lowing. Cycling  tours  in  the  Malay  peninsula  are  a 
favourite  amusement  with  Singapore  residents,  a  fact 
which  speaks  volumes  for  the  condition  of  the  country 
and  its  communications.  If  any  one  cares  to  know  what 
the  British  residents  found  when  they  arrived  at  the 
Malay  courts  they  can  read  the  true  stories,  told  in  the 
guise  of  fiction,  by  Frank  Swettenham  and  Hugh  Clif- 
ford, —  tales  of  intrigue,  corruption,  wild  passions,  medi- 
aeval barbarism,  and  also  of  heroism  and  devotion,  —  a 
world  which  seems  almost  impossible  in  these  days  of 
prose. 

The  phenomenal  success  of  the  Federal  Malay  States, 
the  revenue  being  greater  than  in  any  British  colony 
except  Ceylon,  has  been  chiefly  due  to  the  wise  policy 
adopted  from  the  outset,  carried  out  by  officials  who 


236  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

understood  the  people  —  chiefly  Malays  and  Chinese  — 
they  had  to  deal  with.  This  policy  may  be  defined  in  a 
few  words.  Interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  man- 
ners, customs,  and  prejudices  of  the  various  nationalities 
concerned  and  not  at  all  with  religious  matters,  especially 
the  Mohammedan  faith.  Encourage  all  immigration, 
Chinese,  Indian,  or  other,  and  the  introduction  of  capital, 
European  and  Chinese.  Open  the  country,  by  roads  and 
railways,  give  security  and  prompt  justice,  abolish  all 
import  duties  (except  on  spirits  and  opium)  and  all  re- 
straints on  trade  and  industries. 

Penang  and  Malacca  (directly  under  the  Straits  Settle- 
ment Government)  and  the  Malay  States  (indirectly  so) 
are  only  included  in  this  sketch  of  British  interests  in  the 
Pacific  on  account  of  their  influence  on  the  development 
of  Singapore,  which  is  considerable,  and  because  they 
afford  interesting  illustrations  of  how  to  deal  with  Malays, 
a  question  which  is  more  important  just  at  present  than 
most  people  imagine. 

Public  education,  of  which  Great  Britain  has  made 
such  a  feature  (with  not  altogether  satisfactory  results)  in 
her  Indian  Empire,  meets  with  many  checks  in  Singa- 
pore, not  the  least  being  the  veritable  Babel  which  natu- 
rally exists  among  such  a  mixed  population.  There  are 
only  six  English-speaking  schools,  and  these  suffer  from 
the  fact  that  a  boy  can  get  employment  almost  as  soon  as 
he  can  read  and  write,  so  that  education  remains  at  an 
elementary  stage.  No  attempt  is  being  made  to  force 
education  or  even  the  learning  of  the  English  tongue 
upon  the  Malays.  Village  schools  in  the  vernacular  are 
supported  by  Government.  It  is  interesting,  in  view  of 
the  experiment  just  beginning  in  the  Philippines  with 
a  people  of  the  same  stock,  to  see  how  the  natives  of  the 


THE   STRAITS   SETTLEMENTS  AND    HONG   KONG     237 

Malay  peninsula  are  being  treated.  No  Englishman 
who  has  had  any  experience  of  them  believes  them  capa- 
ble of  assimilating  any  sort  of  civilisation  en  bloc.  In 
another  chapter  we  have  seen  how  the  United  States 
proposes  to  deal  with  this  interesting  and  difficult  race. 

The  Eurasian  class,  while  fairly  numerous,  does  not 
present  the  same  problem  as  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 
The  British  system  does  not  encourage,  directly  or  in- 
directly, the  increase  of  their  numbers.  Although  the 
demand  for  youths  who  can  speak  and  write  English 
creates  openings  for  a  certain  number  of  clerks,  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  supply  is  never  sufficient,  and  above 
such  positions  it  is  practically  (though  not  theoretically) 
almost  impossible  for  Eurasians  to  rise  in  British  colo- 
nies. The  much  criticised  British  attitude  towards  the 
Eurasians  has  at  least  this  advantage,  that  it  does  some- 
thing to  check  the  growth  of  that  class,  never  a  satisfac- 
tory one  in  physique  or  morale. 

There  are  two  significant  developments  to  be  observed 
at  Singapore  and  throughout  the  Far  East,  deserving 
more  detailed  treatment,  which  cannot  escape  any  visitor 
who  has  known  this  part  of  the  world. 

The  first  is  the  gradually  encroaching  wealth,  power, 
and  number  of  the  Chinese  community.  The  spectacle  of 
a  Chinese  gentleman  driving  a  smart  phaeton  and  pair  has 
been  remarked  on  as  no  unusual  one  in  Singapore.  Indeed, 
it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  majority  of  well- 
appointed  carriages  drawn  by  fine  horses  that  one  sees 
are  the  property  of  Chinese,  while  they  are  constantly 
buying  or  building  large  and  handsome  houses  in  the 
suburbs.  The  Chinese  quarter,  as  applied  to  those 
streets  of  small  houses  and  shops  occupied  exclusively 
by  Celestials,  has  eaten  up  a  large  portion  of  the  town, 


238  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

which  the  writer  remembers  as  European  a  few  years 
back,  and  continues  to  grow  steadily.  The  Chinese 
merchants  have  shown  themselves  public-spirited  in  sub- 
scribing for  public  objects,  and  the  Straits  Settlements 
being  a  Crown  Colony  and  governed  from  Downing 
Street,  there  is  no  question  of  a  Chinese  vote  or  any 
similar  complication.  But  the  Chinese  require  a  firm 
hand  to  preserve  order,  to  control  the  secret  societies, 
and  ensure  the  freedom  of  women  and  children.  The 
phenomenon  is  therefore  worthy  of  consideration,  and  we 
are  compelled  to  ask :  Where  will  this  movement  stop  ? 
The  Briton  whose  fate  takes  him  to  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments can  never  regard  it  as  a  home.  His  children  can- 
not grow  up  there,  and  he  himself  looks  forward  to  the 
time  when  he  can  escape  from  the  enervating  climate. 
It  is,  in  short,  temporary  exile,  and  only  the  more  pal- 
pably so  because  with  characteristic  British  pluck  and 
conservatism  he  preserves  as  far  as  possible  the  ways  of 
life  in  the  old  country  —  rides,  shoots,  cycles,  plays  polo, 
cricket,  and  tennis,  and  even  works  hard  at  amateur 
soldiering  in  the  Singapore  Volunteers.  The  Chinaman, 
on  the  contrary,  has  the  curious  and  anomalous  charac- 
teristic that,  while  always  remaining  a  priori  a  Chinaman, 
he  can  expatriate  himself  at  will  and  ally  himself  with 
the  people  of  the  country.  At  Singapore  he  is  in  clover. 
Unlike  the  Englishman,  he  requires  no  exercise  to  pre- 
serve his  health  —  a  feature  in  which  he  closely  resem- 
bles the  Russian. 

The  second  significant  fact  is  the  change  which  has 
lately  come  over  the  shipping  in  the  Far  East,  more 
especially  through  the  port  of  Singapore.  The  writer's 
attention  was  forcibly  drawn  to  this  by  the  discovery, 
when  he  desired  to  go  from  the  Straits  to  North  Borneo, 


THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG  KONG     239 

—  from  one  British  possession  to  another,  —  that  he  was 
actually  forced  to  travel  by  a  German  steamer,  a  branch 
of  the  North  German  Lloyd.  The  same  line  is  now  the 
chief  one  running  between  Singapore  and  Manila  and 
between  North  Borneo  and  the  Philippines.  The  same 
flag  now  covers  the  carrying  trade  between  Singapore 
and  Bangkok.  Until  the  other  day  these  were  all  Brit- 
ish lines.  For  some  time  past  dwellers  in  the  East 
have  found  much  to  complain  of  in  the  service  of  Brit- 
ish steamers,  notably  the  P.  &  O.  company,  which  had 
practically  a  monopoly,  and  when  Germany  started  a 
magnificent  passenger  line,  on  which  the  comforts  of 
passengers  were  carefully  consulted,  many  people  pre- 
ferred to  travel  by  it  rather  than  face  the  high  prices, 
limited  accommodation,  and  in  many  cases  the  scant 
courtesy  they  had  hitherto  to  put  up  with  on  their  own 
boats.  The  policy  of  the  German  line  was  to  please  the 
passengers,  and  they  succeeded.  On  more  than  one 
occasion  an  outcry  was  raised  when  a  high  official  and 
his  family  chose  to  travel  by  a  foreign  line,  but  such 
an  event  no  longer  attracts  attention.  The  claims  of 
patriotism  were  urged,  but  British  subjects  objected  to 
travelling  on  uncomfortable  steamers  which,  though 
heavily  subsidised,  persisted  in  employing  Lascar  crews. 
Germany  has  not  been  the  only  competitor  for  both 
goods  and  passenger  traffic.  The  French  Messageries 
Maritimes  was  first  in  the  field,  but  has  made  little  prog- 
ress. But  the  excellent  and  inexpensive  boats  of  the 
Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  have  absorbed  a  great  deal  of  both 
the  freight  and  passenger  traffic  between  East  and  West, 
and  their  fleet  is  yearly  increased.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  this  competition,  which  should  have  been  healthy 
and  stimulating  in  its  effect,  has  not  led  Great  Britain  to 


240  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

make  further  efforts  in  this  direction.  Apart  from  the 
open  ports,  British  prosperity  has  mainly  been  due  to 
competition  and  cheapness  of  distribution,  and  the  falling 
off  described  is  largely  attributable  to  a  deviation  from 
this  traditional  policy,  and  to  the  short-sighted  and  un- 
patriotic views  of  British  ship-owners  aiming  at  present 
profits  rather  than  permanent  prosperity. 

An  Eastern  shipping  conference  composed  of  British 
and  Foreign  Steamship  owners  was  recently  inaugu- 
rated. Under  the  influence  of  this  trust  or  syndicate 
heavy  freight  charges  were  imposed,  large  rebates  being 
allowed,  however,  to  shippers  by  the  lines  belonging  to 
the  Conference.  This  had  the  effect  of  killing  or  driv- 
ing away  the  smaller  local  lines.  The  European  trade 
with  the  Dutch  East  Indies  which  used  to  pass  through 
Singapore  now  goes  to  Batavia  direct,  while  the  local 
carrying  trade  has  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  large 
German  companies  and  firms  who  are  dominating  the 
Conference.  The  British  subsidised  line,  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Steamship  Company  has  entered  the  ring.1 
The  general  effect  has  been  to  deaden  healthy  competi- 
tion, to  choke  all  small  ventures,  and  to  set  up  what  is 
practically  a  monopoly,  in  which  Britain  suffers  most, 
for  the  ring  plays  into  the  hands  of  German  merchants. 
It  is  something  of  a  reflection  on  the  public  spirit  of  the 
British  mercantile  community  of  Singapore  that  no  ener- 
getic protest  has  been  entered  against  this  system, 
though  its  evils  have  been  clearly  pointed  out  by  the 
Government  officials.  The  official  and  commercial 
classes  in  Singapore,  it  may  be  added,  are  not  infre- 
quently in  disagreement  as  to  the  policy  most  beneficial 

1  The  last  annual  report  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  published  since  these 
pages  were  in  print,  supports  these  views. 


THE   STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG   KONG     241 

to  the  Settlements,  and  it  certainly  appears  to  an  on- 
looker that  the  views  of  the  latter  are  strongly  preju- 
diced by  their  immediate  and  personal  interest,  an 
attitude  both  short-sighted  and  unpatriotic. 

To  turn  to  the  chief  British  outpost  in  the  Far  East. 
Every  one  knows  that  Hong  Kong  is  a  rocky  islet  ceded 
to  England  in  1842,  and  since  then  converted  into 
a  flourishing  and  up-to-date  commercial  and  strategic 
post.  Very  few  of  the  hundreds  of  people,  however,  who 
annually  pass  through  Hong  Kong  on  their  way  round 
the  world,  not  very  many  even  of  the  actual  residents, 
know  how  beautiful  an  islet  it  is,  or  care  to  spend 
more  than  a  few  hours  in  seeing  something  of  it.  In 
the  writer's  opinion  there  are  few  views  in  the  world 
to  beat  the  vista  from  certain  parts  of  the  Peak  of 
broken  shore,  rocky  islands,  and  distant  mainland  of 
Asia  which  spreads  out  in  a  glorious  panorama.  The 
busy  town  lies  at  one's  feet,  so  far  below  that  buildings, 
gardens,  and  streets  are  like  green  and  white  and  red 
patches  divided  by  white  lines.  The  harbour  lies 
beyond  with  a  graceful  curve,  and  on  its  bosom  float 
many  beautiful  ships  —  stately  men-o'-war  glistening 
with  white  paint,  big  long-lined  ocean  steamers  sur- 
rounded by  shoals  of  samp>ans,  trading  schooners,  great 
clumsy  Chinese  junks,  white-sailed  yachts,  trim  little 
steam  launches,  and  many  other  craft  of  all  sorts  and 
every  nation.  Further  out  hovers  a  fleet  of  fishing 
boats,  their  red  sails  bellied  by  the  wind ;  the  blue  water 
is  broken  by  a  chain  of  rocky  islands  half  covered  with 
green ;  and  on  the  horizon  is  the  faint  coast-line  of 
China.  Hong  Kong  itself  is  a  monument  of  human 
industry.  So  small  is  the  fringe  of  flat  land  at  the 
foot  of  the  Peak,  that  the  town,  which  is  being  built 


242  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

out  further  and  further  into  the  sea  by  means  of  recla- 
mation, begins  almost  at  once  to  climb,  and  a  network 
of  excellent  paths  running  zigzag  at  easy  gradients  has 
been  carried  up  the  steep  sides  of  the  rock.  The  terri- 
tory acquired  at  Kaulung  on  the  neighbouring  mainland 
provides  ample  room  for  a  great  extension  of  Hong 
Kong,  which  is  already  being  rapidly  utilised.  The 
town  itself  contains  many  handsome  buildings,  and  the 
Chinese  shops  are  famous  for  their  store  of  silver, 
black  wood  furniture,  and  curios.  A  beautiful  sight 
is  the  flower-market  held  in  a  side  street  which  rises 
in  steps,  so  that  the  masses  of  blooms  seem  to  be 
piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  while  their  picturesque 
venders  dressed  in  tones  of  rich  blue  are  half  con- 
cealed by  the  lilies,  roses,  daffodils,  and  great  branches 
of  greenery. 

The  houses  at  Hong  Kong,  especially  those  on  the 
Peak,  are  built  more  after  English  fashion,  and  have 
windows  and  fireplaces,  for  the  winter  is  delightfully 
cold,  and  even  in  spring  fires  and  blankets  are  some- 
times necessary  on  the  Peak,  where  year  by  year  more 
people  prefer  to  live.  The  humidity  of  the  climate  is 
the  great  drawback,  and  sometimes  Peak-dwellers  are 
enwrapped  for  days  in  a  blanket  of  thick  fog,  when 
everything  not  dried  constantly  in  a  hot  room  acquires 
a  coating  of  green  mould.  Still  there  are  rosy  cheeks 
and  bright  eyes  among  the  Hong  Kong  children,  and 
many  ladies  do  not  go  home  for  eight  or  ten  years. 
The  most  trying  feature  of  the  colony  is  that,  like 
Gibraltar,  it  is  built  on  a  rock  and,  notwithstanding 
the  Kaulung  extension,  is  more  or  less  circumscribed. 
The  extension  on  the  mainland,  however,  besides  serv- 
ing other  ends,  has  provided  an  outlet  for  the  energies 


THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG   KONG     243 

of  the   British,  who  can   go  over  to  stretch  their  legs, 
shoot,  or  play  golf. 

Although  Hong  Kong  has  only  taken  half  a  century 
to  reach  its  present  pitch  of  efficiency  and  complete- 
ness, it  was  far  from  being  a  success  during  the  first 
few  years  of  its  existence.  The  climate  was  deadly 
to  Europeans  until  by  drainage  and  the  planting  of 
trees  the  fever  germs  were  partially  subdued.  In  1846 
the  expenditure  had  risen  to  so  high  a  figure,  with 
such  scant  results,  that  not  only  did  Lord  Grey,  then 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  apologise,  as  it  were, 
for  Hong  Kong's  existence  and  declare  that  the  adminis- 
tration to  which  he  belonged  had  had  nothing  to  do 
with  its  establishment,  but  serious  proposals  were  made 
to  abandon  the  colony  altogether.  The  object  of  its 
foundation  had  been  to  establish  a  great  emporium  for 
trade  with  China,  and  it  had  been  selected  as  the 
most  suitable  spot  because  of  its  proximity  to  Canton. 
At  first,  however,  it  attracted  only  the  lowest  classes 
of  the  Chinese  and  became  a  veritable  Alsatia  for 
criminals  and  ruffians.  Against  all  these  untoward 
circumstances  the  first  officials  had  to  contend,  and  in 
spite  of  predictions  and  forebodings  the  work  went 
steadily  on.  The  place  was  improved,  works  were 
systematically  carried  out,  malaria  decreased,  the  better 
class  Chinese  were  gradually  attracted,  and  the  current 
of  trade  set  in  steadily  from  all  quarters  of  the  East, 
drawn  by  the  convenient  and  central  position  of  the 
island,  the  excellence  of  the  harbour,  and  the  absence 
of  all  import  or  export  duties.  Besides  being  a  trade 
depot  Hong  Kong  is  now  essentially  a  strategic  post,  and 
its  defences  have  been  constantly  strengthened,  while 
its  harbour,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  is  the  chief 


244  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

base  for  the  British  fleet  in  Far  Eastern  waters  and  the 
Western  Pacific.  The  garrison  of  Hong  Kong,  which 
seems  to  experts  hardly  sufficient  in  ordinary  times,  was 
further  denuded  during  the  recent  troubles  in  Northern 
China. 

If  the  commercial  value  of  Hong  Kong  has  been  depre- 
ciated by  recent  events  in  the  Far  East,  which  have  turned 
China  from  a  friendly,  commercial,  comparatively  powerful 
and  independent  State  into  an  arena  for  foreign  rivalries 
—  a  country  practically  divided  between  the  Powers  and 
without  any  real  Government  —  its  potential  strategic 
value  has  been  enhanced  by  these  denouements  and  by 
other  developments  in  the  Pacific.  The  approximate 
value  of  the  trade  of  Hong  Kong,  exclusive  of  that 
which  passes  through  and  does  not  break  bulk,  is  twenty 
millions  sterling  per  annum,  the  tonnage  being  over 
eight  million  tons.  The  presence  of  America  in  the 
Philippines,  and  the  consequent  shifting  of  the  centre  of 
activity  considerably  to  the  east  of  Hong  Kong,  open, 
however,  a  grave  possibility,  for  it  is  obvious  that  this 
island  on  the  Chinese  coast  will  in  the  future  be  out  of 
the  direct  trade  routes  between  Australasia,  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  the  great  markets  of  America.  More- 
over, its  value  as  a  distributing  centre  for  Northern  China 
will  be  greatly  impaired  by  the  vast  changes  occurring  in 
that  quarter.  In  fact  the  developments  in  the  Pacific 
will,  speaking  broadly,  leave  Hong  Kong  largely  out  of 
the  reckoning,  except  as  regards  the  trade  with  South- 
ern China.  The  future  of  the  colony  depends  therefore 
on  the  maintenance  of  the  integrity  of  China,  and  it  seems 
extraordinary  that  there  has  been  no  powerful  expression 
of  feeling  emanating  from  the  local  merchants  to  induce 
the  Government  to  take  strenuous  steps  to  protect  their 


THE   STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG   KONG     245 

interests  on  the  mainland  of  Asia.  Business  has,  how- 
ever, been  brisk,  owing  largely  to  the  occupation  of  the 
Philippines,  which  led  to  a  great  extension  of  trade  and 
shipping  for  the  time  being,  and  the  failure  of  the 
great  China  market  does  not  hit  hard  the  present  gen- 
eration. The  possibility  of  Manila  becoming  a  serious 
rival  is  also  one  that  does  not  at  present  seriously  exer,- 
cise  the  Hong  Kong  merchant  or  ship-owner.  But, 
although  that  place  is  handicapped  during  certain  seasons 
by  adverse  winds  and  typhoons,  there  are  evident  signs 
that  the  United  States  mean  to  make  an  important 
centre  of  the  capital  of  the  Philippines.  At  present 
Manila  Bay,  though  nearly  landlocked,  is  not  a  good 
natural  harbour,  but  large  sums  are  to  be  spent  on  im- 
proving it,  a  measure  that  cannot  be  merely  for  orna- 
mental purposes. 

There  is,  however,  a  natural  harbour  in  British  terri- 
tory which  commands  not  only  many  of  the  new  trade 
routes  but  the  whole  of  the  island  chain  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  namely  Sandakan,  in  North  Borneo,  whose 
advantages  and  disadvantages  are  discussed  later  on. 

In  many  respects  Hong  Kong  well  deserves  the  name 
of  "  the  model  colony  "  which  is  sometimes  applied  to  it. 
Notwithstanding  its  status  as  a  British  colony,  it  is  pri- 
marily a  Chinese  settlement,  the  small  European  ele- 
ment being  entirely  transitory.  The  method  by  which 
this  Chinese  population  is  controlled  has  aroused  the 
admiration  of  all  foreign  critics,  for  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  rulers  of  Hong  Kong  are  a  mere  handful 
of  men  divided  from  their  own  country  by  half  the 
world,  while  the  island  lies  just  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
Great  Chinese  Empire  and  its  hundreds  of  millions  of 
inhabitants,  being  separated  from  the  mainland  only  by 


246  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

a  pass  half  a  mile  wide.  Of  the  total  population  of 
240,000  only  some  8000,  exclusive  of  the  garrison,  are 
whites,  and  of  these  at  least  half  are  euphemistically 
termed  Portuguese.  The  British  have  acted  with  great 
liberality  towards  their  Oriental  settlers,  protecting  the 
colony  and  asking  only  indirect  advantage,  giving  them 
educational  and  other  opportunities  practically  equal 
to  those  obtainable  in  self-governing  colonies.  Order  is 
maintained  without  overstepping  the  limits  of  police 
work,  and  a  liberal  commercial  policy  is  pursued. 

This  system,  it  may  be  noted,  is  not  the  result  of  a  cut- 
and-dried  code,  but  was  gradually  evolved  out  of  experience 
as  the  conditions  arose,  and  that  is  the  secret  of  Britain's 
colonial  success  in  every  clime.  In  Hong  Kong  and  the 
Straits  Settlements  we  have  enriched  the  Chinese  and 
they  have  enriched  us,  and  on  the  whole  we  dwell  peace- 
ably together  —  we  governing  and  the  Chinese  working. 
Spain  has  disappeared  as  a  colonial  Power.  France 
has  failed  utterly  in  Indp-China  and  elsewhere  because 
she  could  not  establish  a  modus  vivendi  like  this ;  Ger- 
many seems  to  have  found  a  similar  stumbling  block ; 
and  it  is  possible  that  America,  in  dealing  with  another 
Oriental  people,  will  trip  on  a  like  difficulty.  The  writer 
is  not  a  self-complacent  Briton  who  points  to  his  country 
as  the  only  one  capable  of  dealing  with  such  problems. 
He  is  far  too  well  acquainted  with  the  many  mistakes 
made  in  the  Indian  Empire,  for  instance,  to  believe  her 
faultless  or  infallible  in  her  dealings  "  with  natives,"  but 
a  measure  of  success  not  vouchsafed  to  any  other  nation 
has  certainly  followed  many  of  her  experiments  with 
Asiatics,  and  this  success  is  only  magnified  by  the  vast 
difficulties  that  had  to  be  contended  with.  In  every 
case  success,  however  partial,  has  been  the  result  of  the 


THE   STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  AND   HONG   KONG     247 

system  indicated,  —  that  of  seeking  no  direct  revenue 
for  the  mother  country,  building  up  step  by  step,  and 
modifying  the  structure  to  the  needs  of  the  particular 
situation.  No  doubt  much  of  this  successful  empire 
building  has  been  due  to  the  fact  that  from  her  little 
corner  of  the  globe  Great  Britain  has  been  able  to  pick 
and  choose  the  best  places,  and  on  the  whole  has  not 
fettered  her  pioneers  with  too  much  red  tape.  Thus 
individuals  have  been  able  to  mature  and  carry  out  their 
plans  without  overmuch  interference.  There  are  those 
who  say  that  this  halcyon  time  is  over,  and  that  with 
improved  communications  the  work  of  the  man  on  the 
spot  who  knows  is  to  be  continually  spoilt  by  the  men  at 
home  who  don't  The  continued  pressure  of  new  rivals, 
adopting  methods  alien  to  the  British  system,  is  another 
cause  for  disquietude.  The  range  of  opportunities  is 
being  narrowed  by  increasing  competition.  Be  this  as 
it  may  it  is  still  true  that  if  communities  are  strong 
in  their  convictions  and  single-eyed  in  their  desire  for 
the  common  weal  they  can  always  make  their  opinions 
felt,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  officials  who  some- 
times complain  that  their  hands  are  tied  by  the  Home 
Government.  A  new  era  has  begun  which  demands  in- 
creasing activity,  and  there  is  still  a  great  future  for 
British  energy  and  enterprise  in  the  Far  East  and  the 
Pacific  if  opportunities  are  properly  utilised. 


A   NORTH   BORNEO   RIVER 


CHAPTER   X 

BRITISH    NORTH    BORNEO 

THERE  are  many  peculiarities  both  in  the  situation  and 
the  condition  of  Borneo  —  the  largest  island  in  the  world 
except  New  Guinea.  Lying  as  it  does  between  Austra- 
lia, the  coming  continent  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  main- 
land of  Asia;  situated  moreover  in  the  track  of  trade 
between  the  British  ports,  Singapore  and  Hong  Kong, 
and  the  northern  coast  of  Australia;  with  one  long  stretch 
of  coast  facing  the  Pacific  and  its  innumerable  isles; 
linked  on  the  north  to  the  Philippine  chain  and  on  the 
south  close  to  the  wealthiest  of  the  Dutch  Indier  — 
with  all  these  natural  advantages  of  position  one  might 
have  expected  that  in  the  early  days  of  Pacific  conquest 
there  would  have  been  a  struggle  for  the  possession 
of  this  important  commercial  and  strategical  field.  On 

248 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  249 

the  contrary,  although  both  Dutch  and  British  did  a 
little  trading  and  established  factories  in  the  south, 
there  was  no  attempt  made  to  obtain  any  political 
control  of  the  island  until,  after  they  had  more  than 
once  been  driven  away  by  the  natives,  the  Dutch  man- 
aged to  arrange  a  treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  Banjermassin, 
and  so  get  in  the  thin  edge  of  the  wedge  with  which 
they  eventually  acquired  all  South  and  Central  Borneo. 

England's  authority  over  any  part  of  the  island  only 
dates  from  1 846,  when  Labuan  became  a  Crown  Colony  ; 
but  as  Labuan  is  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the 
mainland  it  was  literally  not  till  the  British  North 
Borneo  Company  obtained  a  charter  for  the  opening  up 
of  that  part  of  the  island  that  Great  Britain  really 
acquired  a  hold  over  this  territory  of  so  much  apparent 
importance. 

Besides  the  geographical  advantages  of  Borneo,  it  has 
long  been  known  that  the  island  is  rich  in  minerals  —  a 
fact  which,  as  a  rule,  ensures  plenty  of  attention.  Gold 
has  been  found  in  every  part,  diamonds  in  the  south  and 
west,  coal  in  various  districts,  oil  in  the  south  and 
east,  besides  other  less  valuable  minerals.  There  are 
also  virgin  forests,  large  tracts  of  land  suitable  for  that 
most  profitable  culture,  tobacco.  In  fact,  the  story  of 
Borneo  told  in  outline,  without  deviating  from  the  truth, 
sounds  like  that  of  a  veritable  El  Dorado.  But  —  and 
at  this  period  of  the  world's  history  such  a  "  but "  is  very 
significant  —  the  fact  remains  that  Borneo  is  still  an 
uncultivated  estate,  a  garden  full  of  weeds.  There  is 
some  fate  hanging  over  the  island,  and  it  seems  as 
though  it  were  doomed  never  to  realise  its  splendid  pos- 
sibilities. There  are  skeletons  in  the  closet,  and  these 
are  for  ever  rattling  their  bones,  as  we  shall  see  later  on. 


250 


THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 


The  first  step  towards  the  English  occupation  was  due 
to  private  enterprise,  as  is  almost  invariably  the  case  in 
the  annals  of  the  Empire.  James  Brooke,  a  gentleman 
of  private  means,  travelling  in  the  East  in  search  of 
health,  was  induced  by  various  circumstances  to  visit 
the  Malay  States  into  which  Western  Borneo  was  then 
divided.  A  terrible  condition  of  affairs  then  existed. 
The  riches  and  civilisation  described  three  centuries 
before  by  Piggafetta  had  gradually  declined,  the  poorer 
people  were  ground  down,  and  the  Malay  officials  tyran- 
nised over  their  own  countrymen  and  persecuted  the 
unfortunate  Dyaks,  as  the  aborigines  were  called. 
The  coasts  and  rivers  were  infested  with  pirates,  who 
were  the  terror  of  the  neighbouring  seas.  The  lack  of 

organising  power  ever  notice- 
able among  people  of  Malay 
origin  prevented  the  people 
from  doing  anything  for  their 
own  deliverance. 

James  Brooke,  moved  by  a 
sincere  desire  to  evolve  order 
and  justice  out  of  all  this 
chaos,  and  above  everything 
to  abolish  the  piracy  which 
made  all  legitimate  trade  im- 
possible, settled  down  in  the 
State  of  Sarawak,  protected 
only  by  the  crew  of  his  yacht, 
and  earned  by  degrees  the 
confidence  of  the  Rajah  and  people  through  his  wise 
advice,  his  sympathy  and  strength  of  character.  Finally 
he  was  invited  to  take  upon  himself  the  office  of  Rajah, 
and  after  refusing  several  times  he  at  length  con- 


A   SARAWAK   DYAK 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  251 

sented.  His  path  was  not  always  smooth;  on  one 
occasion  at  least  a  revolution  drove  him  from  his  house 
and  his  life  was  threatened,  but  the  people  rallied  round 
him  and  restored  him  to  his  throne.  His  strenuous  and 
successful  efforts  to  stamp  out  piracy  made  him  enemies 
among  the  sentimental  class  at  home,  and  the  calumnies 
and  difficulties  with  which  he  was  annoyed  in  England 
were  far  greater  troubles  to  him  than  the  inevitable 
hitches  in  his  self-imposed  task  of  reducing  a  Malay  State 
to  order.  His  frank  and  open  nature  led  him  to  a  free- 
dom of  speech  which  antagonised  powerful  people,  but  at 
the  end  of  his  life  he  saw  the  triumphant  vindication  of 
his  character,  and  in  the  devotion  of  his  Malay  subjects 
he  received  his  best  reward.  The  secret  of  his  success 
with  Malays  is  said  by  those  who  knew  him  best  to  have 
been  largely  due  to  the  perfect  courtesy  of  his  manners. 
He  impressed  the  Orientals  by  the  dignity  of  his  bearing 
and  won  their  hearts  by  his  sympathy  and  politeness. 

The  result  of  his  efforts  is  the  best  possible  testimony 
to  his  worth  and  wisdom.  Sarawak,  now  governed  by 
his  nephew  on  the  lines  he  laid  down,  is  a  model  State. 
There  are  good  schools,  public  buildings,  well-regu- 
lated towns,  thriving  trade,  an  excellent  civil  service  of 
Europeans  with  trained  natives  as  underlings,  a  native 
militia  and  police,  and  a  fleet  of  launches,  yachts,  and 
sailing  boats  with  trained  native  crews. 

Piracy  has  been  crushed  on  sea,  and  head  hunting 
kept  in  check  on  land.  The  Dyaks  dwell  peacefully  in 
their  villages  and  are  being  taught  the  arts  of  peace  — 
agriculture  and  simple  manufactures.  The  Rajah  is 
averse  to  allowing  concessions  to  Europeans,  and  only 
one  company  is  engaged  in  exploiting  minerals.  Most 
of  the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Chinese,  and  the  revenues 


252 


THE  MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 


of  the  country  are  sufficient  for  prosperity.  The  country 
is  in  fact  administered  like  a  large  and  flourishing  estate. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  every  man  who  is  brought  into 
relations  with  Orientals  does  not  endeavour  to  model 
himself  in  many  respects  on  Rajah  Brooke.  It  is  the 
gravest  mistake  to  attempt  to  introduce  the  freedom 
of  speech  and  laxity  of  manners  characteristic  of  modern 
Europe  and  America  into  the  East,  whose  people  are  still 
under  the  impression  that  "  manners  makyth  man."  The 


SARAWAK    DYAK    FAMILY   AT   HOME 


single-eyed  firmness  of  purpose  of  "  the  old  Rajah  "  might 
also  be  emulated  with  advantage. 

Next  door  to  the  truly  model  State  of  Sarawak,  now 
under  British  protection,  is  the  moribund  sultanate 
of  Brunei.  Brunei,  once  nearly  as  high  in  the  ranks 
of  Malay  civilisation  as  Java ;  whose  hundred  splen- 
didly caparisoned  elephants  manoeuvred  before  Pigga- 
fetta;  whose  king  received  tribute  from  all  the  adja- 
cent States  and  the  islands  of  Sulu ;  whose  wonderful 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  253 

gold-embroidered  stuffs,  silver  and  gold  vessels,  with 
their  thread  decoration  of  simple  but  artistic  design,  and 
splendid  jewelled  krisses  were  a  sight  to  dazzle  even  the 
Venetian,  accustomed  to  the  luxuries  of  his  own  beauti- 
ful city — Brunei  is  fallen  very  low.  Quaint  and  pictu- 
resque, it  stands  half  on  the  river's  mouth,  the  brown  huts 
on  innumerable  piles  reflected  in  the  sluggish  water,  a 
few  Chinese  junks  and  numerous  little  Malay  praus 
rocking  gently  with  the  tide.  A  greedy,  ignorant  mon- 
arch squats  in  a  dark  and  noisome  room  in  his  tumble- 
down palace,  while  his  ministers  stand  about  him  clad  in 
gaudy  cotton  dresses  and  decked  with  shoddy  English 
jewellery  sold  them  by  the  enterprising  Chinaman  who 
is  the  only  person  who  makes  anything  out  of  this  effete 
and  decaying  State.  Nothing  done  in  the  way  of  keep- 
ing the  town  clean  or  the  river  clear,  no  proper  Customs 
regulations,  no  education,  no  administration,  no  justice  — 
this  in  the  town  itself,  while  in  the  interior  might  is 
right,  and  the  natives  settle  their  own  affairs  after  the 
immemorial  Malay  fashion  by  bloody  feuds  and  mid- 
night assassination  —  only  the  Malay  does  not  really 
mind  whether  it  is  midnight  or  not,  for  he  thinks  no 
shame  to  take  life  and  wants  no  cloak  of  darkness  to 
cover  the  deed.  The  Brunei  men  bear  a  bad  character 
in  the  archipelago  even  now,  when  they  can  no  longer 
indulge  in  piracy.  In  figure  short  and  slight,  in  bearing 
they  are  either  bold  and  defiant  or  shifty  and  cunning. 

Brunei  is  the  last  of  independent  Malay  States,  for 
although  nominally  under  British  protection  it  is  obvious 
that  little  can  be  done  to  interfere  with  it.  If  something 
particularly  flagrant  occurs,  the  Governor  of  British 
North  Borneo  (who  is  of  course  the  servant  of  his 
Company  and  not  of  Great  Britain)  goes  over  to  Bru- 


254  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

nei  and  spends  an  unpleasant  hour  sitting  in  the  council 
chamber  surrounded  by  betel-chewing  Malays  with  im- 
passive faces  and  twitching  hands.  They  agree  politely 
with  everything  he  says  —  the  Malay  is  always  a  gentle- 
man in  manner  —  and  as  his  yacht  leaves  the  harbour 
they  turn  round  with  a  sigh  of  relief.  They  know  that 
the  hard-worked  official,  who  administers  a  province 
about  the  size  of  Ireland,  cannot  waste  more  time  in 
coming  again  just  yet.  They  are  also  perfectly  aware 
that  he  is  not  in  a  position  to  employ  force. 

The  British  North  Borneo  Company  rules  over  a  very 
large  slice  of  the  island,  although  its  territory  does  not 
make  much  show  on  the  map.  The  island  of  Labuan, 
which  was  a  Crown  Colony  from  1846  to  1889,  was  at 
the  latter  date  handed  over  to  the  Company,  presumably 
because  the  Government  did  not  think  it  worth  the 
expense  of  upkeep.  It  is  now  one  of  the  residences  of 
the  Governor,  the  principal  one  being  at  Sandakan  on 
the  north  coast.  The  Company  have  a  Governor  and 
Civil  Service,  and  have  established  trading  posts  at 
intervals  along  the  coast,  while  a  telegraph  line  runs 
right  across  North  Borneo  and  connects  Labuan  and 
Sandakan.  There  are  about  half  a  dozen  administrative 
posts  scattered  about  the  interior,  of  which  a  sketch  will 
be  given  later  on.  There  is  a  railway  line  in  course  of 
construction,  which,  if  it  fulfilled  the  objects  for  which  it 
was  built,  would  connect  the  coast  next  Labuan  with  a 
post  some  distance  inland  and  would  "tap  a  large  popu- 
lation." Another  line  starting  from  the  first  runs  along 
the  coast  to  a  place  called  Jesselton,  while  there  is  a 
scheme  for  connecting  east  and  west  coast  by  rail  and 
wire.  The  Company  offer  concessions  of  land  to  young 
men  with  a  certain  capital  to  invest.  They  show  on 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  255 

their  maps  a  large  area  of  land  suitable  for  tobacco,  and 
state  that  very  large  estates  are  already  under  culti- 
vation. 

Before  speaking  further  of  either  the  Company  or  the 
territory  they  administer,  it  is  as  well  to  say  a  few  words 
on  the  subject  of  Chartered  Companies  generally.  The 
story  is  no  new  one.  The  break-down  and  collapse  of 
the  old  Dutch  East  Indian  Company,  and  the  abuses 
left  behind,  were  prototypes  of  what  would  happen  to 
other  companies  on  the  same  model.  The  abuses  might 
not  be  as  flagrant,  nor  the  crash  as  supreme,  but  the 
same  reasons  were  at  the  bottom.  Our  own  East  Indian 
Company,  though  saved  from  an  equal  degree  of  failure 
by  the  genius  of  the  men  whom  it  attracted,  was  yet 
inadequate  to  deal  with  the  problems  of  government; 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  came  to  grief  over  the 
Indian  question ;  and  the  Chartered  Company  of  South 
Africa  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  useful  as  a  pioneer  — 
and  not  always  wisely  at  that. 

The  system  is  in  fact  only  a  temporary  one.  The 
Companies  are  pioneers,  and  they  undertake  for  ulterior 
motives  a  task  for  which  the  Government  is  not  pre- 
pared. Had  Cecil  Rhodes  never  planned  and  carried 
through  the  occupation  of  Matabeleland  and  Mashona- 
land  they  would  have  been  occupied  by  Germany,  and, 
although  North  Borneo  has  not  as  yet  proved  an  impor- 
tant asset  to  the  British  account,  it  is  certainly  a  matter 
for  congratulation  that  it  has  not  fallen  under  the  influ- 
ence of  another  Power.  As  already  pointed  out,  there 
are  many  possibilities  in  the  possession  of  North  Borneo, 
and  we  cannot  afford  to  throw  away  any  more  of  our 
chances  in  the  Far  East. 

It  will  be  seen  in  a  glance  at  the  map  that  Borneo  is 


256 


THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 


FOREST    SCENE,    BRITISH    BORNEO 


practically  divided  by  a  mountain  range,  whose  spine  is 
rather  to  the  north-west,  so  that  the  division  is  not  equal. 
The  interior  is  entirely  occupied  by  these  mountains, 
with  long  spurs  running  south  and  east,  so  that  the 
longest  rivers  empty  themselves  in  those  directions,  and 
are  consequently  in  Dutch  territory.  Of  these  enor- 
mous, sluggish  streams  we  must  speak  in  the  chapter 
about  the  Dutch  possessions;  here  we  are  concerned 
with  those  in  British  territory.  These,  owing  to  the 
comparative  nearness  of  the  watershed  to  the  coast,  are 
rapid,  rocky,  and  hardly  navigable  except  for  native 
boats. 

The  mountains  are  covered  with  jungle  which  extends 
to  the  sea-shore,  except  in  some  favoured  valleys  and 
where  it  has  been  artificially  cleared.  A  journey  inland 
partly  along  the  route  of  the  railroad  and  partly  up  the 
river  Padas  revealed  to  the  writer  the  denseness  and  per- 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  257 

sistency  of  this  jungle,  which  in  many  places  had  already 
swallowed  up  again  the  clearings  made  for  the  line. 
Borneo  is  celebrated  for  its  tropical  wealth  of  flora,  but 
the  jungle  does  not  present  the  luxuriant  tangle  of  giant 
trees,  wreathed  in  ferns  and  creepers,  that  is  the  popular 
idea  of  a  tropical  forest.  The  ground  is  densely  covered 
with  low  scrub,  above  which  rise  the  great  white  trunks 
of  the  primeval  forest,  and  the  ground  is  everywhere 
broken  into  small  hills,  rising  gradually  to  great  heights. 
The  timber  in  this  part  of  the  island,  at  all  events,  is  not 
a  valuable  asset.  It  is  too  isolated,  and  does  not  grow 
near  the  coast  but  among  the  hills  and  valleys  which  are 
difficult  of  access.  A  certain  amount  is  floated  down- 
stream to  the  north-east  ports,  and  there  are  companies 
at  work  dealing  with  this  industry,  but  no  fortunes  are 
being  made. 

Gold,  it  has  been  said,  is  found  in  almost  every  part, 
and  this  is  true  of  North  Borneo,  but  hitherto  it  has 
never  been  made  to  pay  except  by  Chinese  on  a  small 
scale.  It  is  washed  out  of  all  the  rivers  in  small  quan- 
tities, and  from  time  immemorial  has  been  collected  by 
the  natives,  but  for  some  reason  or  other  no  organised 
attempt  has  been  made  to  work  it.  Coal  certainly 
exists  in  North  Borneo,  and  in  the  island  of  Labuan  is  a 
seam  which  has  been  worked  unprofitably  for  years,  but 
which  now,  under  a  disinterested  and  capable  manager, 
promises  better  things.  Coal  can  be  brought  from  the 
mine  to  the  landing-stage  at  a  cost  of  four  shillings  a 
ton,  and  sold  at  eight  shillings.  There  was  a  certain 
output  of  diamonds  from  Sarawak  at  one  time,  but  these 
seem  to  be  nearly  exhausted,  the  best  diamonds  coming 
from  South  Borneo.  Along  the  coasts  of  Borneo  it  is 
usual  to  see  wealthy  natives  and  Europeans  wearing 


258  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

stones  of  large  size,  which,  if  well  cut,  would  be  of  great 
value,  but  the  cutting  is  usually  done  locally  or  in  Java, 
and  the  stones  lack  the  lustre  they  might  have  if  prop- 
erly treated.  The  Borneo  diamond,  as  far  as  a  casual 
observer  can  judge,  is  yellowish  in  colour.  If  a  cur- 
rent story  be  true  we  may  shortly  see  a  number  of  these 
stones  on  the  European  market,  for  an  arrangement 
made  with  the  De  Beers  Company,  which  practically 
controlled  the  output  of  Bornean  diamonds,  has  now 
reached  the  time  limit. 

The  fact  is  that  the  mineral  wealth  of  Borneo  has 
never  been  fully  explored.  The  expense  attaching  to  a 
properly  equipped  scientific  expedition  in  this  country 
would  be  large,  and  a  company  which  has  to  consider 
dividends  hesitates  at  the  initial  outlay.  Borneo  itself 
remains  a  mystery.  Like  the  adjoining  island  of  Min- 
danao, it  holds  in  its  centre  a  country  more  virgin 
to  the  tread  of  the  explorer  than  the  heart  of  Africa. 
Dutch  vessels  have  penetrated  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  coast  up  the  big  rivers  in  the  south,  intrepid 
Englishmen  are  living  in  the  wilds  of  the  country 
belonging  to  the  North  Borneo  Company,  but  they  are 
only  on  the  fringes. 

The  character  of  the  country  and  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
its  inhabitants  are  all  in  keeping.  The  coast,  with  a 
strip  of  more  or  less  cultivated  land  on  the  north  and 
north-west,  is  occupied  by  Malays,  immigrants  originally 
from  Java.  These,  as  we  have  seen,  in  comparatively 
fertile  Brunei  founded  a  great  State  and  have  since  de- 
generated, as  Malays  always  seem  to  do  without  foreign 
influence.  This  strip  of  inhabited  land  gets  thinner 
towards  the  north,  and  as  we  round  the  island  we  find 
only  wilder  tribes  of  sea-going  Malays,  who  dwell  at  the 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  259 

mouths  and  along  the  banks  of  rivers.  Sandakan, 
of  course,  has  a  population  constantly  recruited  from 
the  Philippines  and  Sulu  islands,  but  as  we  follow  the 
coast  eastwards  there  are  only  small  settlements  of  such 
tribes  as  the  Bajaus,  Bugis,  or  pirate  Malays  from  the 
Celebes  and  elsewhere. 

It  may  be  roughly  said  that,  with  the  exception  of 
Brunei  and  Sarawak,  the  rest  of  the  Malay  population 
of  Borneo  is  thinly  scattered  round  the  coast,  and  clus- 
tered into  the  sultanates  of  Kotei,  Banjermassin,  and 
Pontianak,  which  are  reached  by  large  rivers.  This 
population  is  essentially  composed  of  the  sea-gipsies, 
and  not  of  the  higher  grade  of  Malays  who  came  from 
the  semi-civilised  Javanese  States. 

A  little  further  inland,  spreading  into  the  mountains 
in  some  places,  and  having  outlet  at  the  coast  in  others, 
are  the  Dyaks,  a  taller,  better-proportioned  race  than 
the  Malays,  to  whom,  however,  they  are  akin.  They 
have  lank  black  hair,  which  they  tie  up,  straight  features, 
and  a  skin  rather  fairer  than  the  Malays,  though  fre- 
quently tanned  with  exposure.  On  the  coasts  of  North 
Borneo  these  people  have  been  much  modified  by  inter- 
marriage, but  many  of  their  tribes  remain  whose  manner 
of  life,"  appearance,  character,  and  language  (despite  the 
fact  that  many  Malay  words  have  been  incorporated) 
are  quite  distinctive.  A  curious  likeness  certainly  ex- 
ists between  the  Dyaks  and  some  of  the  pagan  tribes  of 
the  Philippines,  and  confirms  the  theory  already  men- 
tioned that  these  races  and  the  Battaks  of  Sumatra 
belong  to  a  period  of  immigration  from  the  mainland 
before  the  Malay  race  had  altogether  evolved.  They 
have  obvious  Mongol  affinities,  but  are  rather  to  be 
regarded  as  Indonesian  or  pre-Malays.  It  will  be 


260 


THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 


remembered  that,  before  the  advent  of  these  half-Malay, 
half-Caucasians,  a  race  of  pure  Caucasians  is  supposed 
to  have  peopled  the  Archipelago,  and  to  have  spread  to 
Polynesia,  where  they  took  root.  Of  these  no  trace  has 
as  yet  been  found  in  Borneo,  but  the  Dyaks  persistently 


SEA-DYAKS 


tell  of  wild  tribes  in  the  mountain  interior  who  are  tall 
and  fair  of  skin.  One  is  sorry  to  discount  the  fascinat- 
ing speculations  raised  by  this  statement  by  casting  any 
doubt  on  their  veracity.  But  it  is  as  well  to  add  that  they 
are  equally  sure  that  there  exists  a  race  of  men  with 
short  thick  tails,  who,  being  unable  to  sit  down  with 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO 


261 


comfort,  carry  about  with  them  little  plank  seats  with 
holes  for  their  inconvenient  appendages !  The  dif- 
ferent tribes  of  Dyaks  vary  considerably.  The  Dusuns 
were  described  to  us  by  an  official  who  lived  among 
them  as  the  nicest  people  he  had  ever  met,  peaceable, 
willing  to  work,  friendly,  and  dignified.  A  curious 
method  of  decoration  practised  by  the  women  of  this 
and  some  other  tribes  is  the  wearing  of  numerous  metal 


DUSUN    WOMEN    WEARING    COILS    OF    WIRE 


rings  of  different  sizes  round  the  body  and  arms,  so  as 
to  almost  cover  them.  Others  are  warlike,  and  make 
excellent  scouts  when  employed  in  the  Company's 
police.  The  officers  of  this  body  spoke  with  confidence 
of  their  Dyak  recruits,  who  have  behaved  extremely 
well  on  several  occasions.  The  Sikhs  who  are  imported 
are  on  the  whole  a  very  inferior  class,  being  merely  the 
sweepings  of  India,  and  of  no  use  in  up-country  work ; 
they  cannot  march  through  jungle  and  must  have  their 
rations  served  regularly.  The  Dyaks,  on  the  contrary,  are 


262  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

at  home  in  the  swampy  jungle ;  they  seem  to  be  able  to 
pick  up  food  anyhow,  shooting  birds  with  their  sumpi- 
tans  or  blow-pipes,  making  a  fire  in  a  few  minutes, 
while  in  half  an  hour  they  will  put  together  a  shed  for 
their  commander.  Nevertheless,  jungle  work  is  extremely 
trying,  for  not  only  mosquitoes  and  flies  besiege  the 
traveller,  but  leeches  swarm  out  of  the  pools  and  fasten 
all  over  his  body  and  legs.  The  Dyaks,  moreover,  are 
liable,  if  an  evil  omen  occurs,  to  sit  down  and  refuse  to 
budge  an  inch,  and  they  are  not  people  to  be  coerced. 
One  peculiarity  betrays  the  savage,  even  when  they  have 
been  drilled  and  trained.  They  cannot  be  induced  to 
take  wounded  prisoners,  and  having  tasted  blood  they 
will  kill  outright.  In  a  description  of  an  expedition 
against  Sarawak  head-hunters  it  is  told  that  the  irregular 
troops  employed  could  not  be  prevented  from  cutting  off 
the  heads  of  their  enemies  and  drying  them  in  baskets 
over  the  camp  fire. 

The  word  "  head-hunter  "  occurs  immediately  to  one's 
mind  on  hearing  of  Borneo,  coupled  with  the  picture 
of  the  "  Wild  Man  of  Borneo,"  as  seen  in  old  geography 
books,  drawn  from  a  terrifying  description  of  the  orang- 
outang. The  writer  never  encountered  any  of  the 
latter,  though  they  are  still  to  be  found  and  shot,  but 
it  is  unfortunately  more  than  possible  that  he,  and  every 
one  who  has  travelled  in  Borneo,  may  have  frequently 
been  at  close  quarters  with  many  of  the  former. 

It  is  supposed  that  this  execrable  practice,  formerly 
a  sign  of  prowess,  but  now  become  even  more  senseless 
and  horrible,  as  women  and  old  people  are  frequently 
attacked  from  behind  to  furnish  another  head  to  the 
collection  of  a  family,  has  been  almost  stamped  out,  and 
it  is  of  course  punished  by  the  Government  to  the  best 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO 


263 


of  their  ability.  It  is,  however,  practically  impossible, 
with  the  forces  at  their  command,  to  control  the  wild 
and  scattered  tribes  inland ;  and  although  head-hunting 
is  supposed  to  be  a 
dead  letter  in  the 
territory,  an  official, 
visiting  a  native  hut 
in  one  of  the  remoter 
districts,  recently 
counted  no  less  than 
thirty  heads  hang- 
ing round  the  walls. 
Some  of  these  from 
their  size  were  evi- 
dently female,  and 
some  undoubtedly 
not  hundreds  of 
years  old,  as  the 
owners  of  the  hut 
hastened  to  explain. 
Even  the  tribes  sub- 
ject to  Sarawak  still 
indulge  in  this  pas- 
time, and  recently 
the  Rajah  had  to 
send  out  a  punitive  expedition  against  them.  The 
charge  of  cannibalism  is  also  brought  against  many  of 
the  tribes,  but  the  writer  obtained  no  first-hand  informa- 
tion as  to  this,  although  it  is  pretty  certain  that  human 
sacrifice  has  been  more  or  less  common,  and  is  still 
practised  by  the  remoter  tribes.  A  favourite  game  of 
the  Chiefs  used  to  be  for  one  to  send  word  to  a  neigh- 
bouring potentate  that  he  was  about  to  kill  a  slave, 


A   DVAK   IN   FULL   WAR-DRESS 


264  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

whereupon  the  other  replied  that  he  would  kill  two 
slaves;  the  first  chief  retorted  by  killing  three,  and  the 
game  was  kept  up  till  the  available  stock  of  slaves  — 
usually  prisoners  of  war  —  was  exhausted.  Report 
accuses  the  Dutch  of  winking  at  such  performances 
when  the  Chiefs  were  friendly  to  Holland. 

The  Dyak  houses  are  built  on  very  high  piles,  and 
not  infrequently  one  large  building  serves  for  the  whole 
village,  as  on  some  frontiers  of  Burmah  and  in  other  semi- 
Malay  countries.  The  height  from  the  ground  is  a  protec- 
tion against  attack,  for  as  the  floors  are  not  solid,  and  the 
people  sleep  on  grass-mats  laid  on  them,  they  might  be 
speared  from  below.  Windows  are  non-existent  or 
tightly  closed.  The  attack  is  therefore  made  by  fire, 
the  people  are  smoked  out,  and  in  the  hubbub  and  con- 
fusion that  occurs  the  attacking  party  has  a  good  chance. 
The  writer  has  unpleasant  recollections  of  a  night  passed 
in  one  of  these  dark,  fetid  communal  houses  in  the  Kach- 
yen  country  between  Burmah  and  China,  among  a  not  very 
friendly  tribe,  when  he  probably  owed  his  preservation 
to  the  fact  that  he  had  previously  disposed  of  all  valu- 
ables, especially  his  arms  and  ammunition,  and  had  there- 
fore nothing  to  be  stolen. 

The  Dyaks,  like  the  kindred  races  in  the  Philippines, 
seem  curiously  difficult  to  tame  or  Christianise,  and 
degenerate  rapidly  in  contact  with  Europeans.  A  few, 
brought  into  constant  contact  with  the  Mussulman 
Malays,  have  adopted  some  of  the  forms  of  that  relig- 
ion, and  speak  of  God  as  "Tuan  Allah"  but  the 
majority  retain  their  own  rude  superstitions,  which  can 
hardly  be  termed  religion.  In  the  north  of  Borneo 
many  of  these  superstitions  centre  round  the  mighty 
mountain  of  Kinabalu,  which  rises  to  the  height  of 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  265 

some  eight  thousand  feet.  The  people  believe  that 
their  souls  go  after  death  to  live  on  the  summits  of 
the  mountain,  and  many  of  them  have  an  unconquer- 
able aversion  to  ascending  it.  Another  quaint  belief, 
easily  explained  by  optical  delusion  and  by  the  fact 
that  none  of  them  dared  to  make  the  experiment,  is 
that,  as  one  ascends,  the  body  gets  smaller  and  smaller, 
and  would  disappear  altogther  if  the  top  were  reached, 
and  they  say  naively  that  they  themselves  witnessed  this 
thing  when  St.  John  and  Low  made  the  ascent,  and 
that  if  they  had  reached  the  top  they  would  never  have 
returned.  This  is  only  one  of  the  many  fantastic 
legends  they  tell.  I  may  add  that  they  have  a  version 
of  the  story  of  Creation,  in  which  the  woman  is  repre- 
sented as  spoiling  the  world  by  her  impatience  to  get 
the  work  of  Creation  finished  and  by  her  forgetfulness 
of  some  essentials. 

There  are,  so  far  as  is  known,  no  curly  or  woolly- 
haired  Negritos  in  Borneo,  but  in  the  interior  are  found 
a  race  known  as  Muruts,  probably  the  result  of  inter- 
marriage with  the  aborigines,  of  small  and  degenerate 
physique,  dark  skin,  and  an  extremely  low  standard  of 
intelligence  and  civilisation.  A  missionary  who  had 
worked  hard  among  these  people,  and  had  succeeded  in 
making  three  converts  (including  his  own  servant),  could 
give  but  little  hope  of  their  being  raised  to  a  higher 
plane.  They  live  chiefly  on  rice  and  roots,  and  distil 
from  the  former  an  intoxicating  liquor  which  is  drunk 
by  men,  women,  and  children  alike.  Although  degraded 
and  dwindling,  they  are  not  amenable.  When  the 
Governor  of  North  Borneo,  calling  a  council  of  them, 
pointed  out  the  harm  it  did  their  children  to  be  made 
drunk  and  proposed  to  pass  a  law  forbidding  the  admin- 


266 


THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 


istration  of  drink  to  children,  they  were  extremely  indig- 
nant, and  finally  only  consented  to  an  age  limit  of  five 
years  —  after  the  age  of  five  a  child  must  be  taught  to 
drink !  Such  behaviour  to  their  own  offspring  places 
this  people  in  the  instincts  of  humanity  below  many 

beasts.  A  Murut 
dance,  commemorat- 
ing the  glories  of 
head-hunting  expe- 
ditions in  past  days, 
is  interesting  in  its 
wild  savagery,  the  ac- 
companiment being 
played  on  tom-toms 
or  drums,  gongs  (of 
which  the  Malay  is 
always  fond),  and 
reed  instruments, 
while  pangasi,  the 
spirit  distilled  from 
rice,  which  has  rather 
an  acid  taste,  is 
handed  round  in 
long  bamboos.  The 
Dyak  war  dances 
are,  however,  infinite- 
ly more  picturesque 
and  dramatic,  reproducing  the  warfare  most  vividly  — 
the  attack,  defence,  and  finally  the  victory. 

Such,  very  briefly,  are  the  native  people  who  inhabit 
the  portion  of  the  island  now  under  British  protection. 
There  remain  two  very  important  items  in  the  population 
—  the  Europeans  and  the  Chinese.  It  is  obvious  that 


A   MURUT  ;    WILD   MAN   OF   BORNEO 


BRITISH   NORTH  BORNEO  267 

without  a  certain  element  of  the  former  and  a  consider- 
able influx  of  the  latter  it  will  be  impossible  to  develop 
the  country — Malays  alone  have  never  yet  been  equal 
to  such  a  task.  It  may  be  urged  that  in  Java  they 
reached  a  very  high  standard  both  of  agriculture  and 
domestic  civilisation,  and  that  at  an  early  date.  But 
it  must  be  remembered  that  they  owed  a  large  part  of 
this  first  to  the  Hindoos,  and  secondly  to  the  Arabs,  and 
that  they  only  reached  this  point  in  countries  specially 
adapted  for  such  development,  such  as  the  rich  uplands 
of  Menangkabo  in  Sumatra  and  the  specially  blessed 
island  of  Java.  Their  prosperity  even  in  that  island  was 
on  the  decline  when  the  Dutch  took  possession,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  in  Java,  where  no  encourage- 
ment has  been  given  to  aliens  to  come  and  exploit  the 
country,  the  Dutch  masters  prevented  the  backslidings 
of  the  native  race  by  coercing  them  into  work.  This 
question  has  been  referred  to  before,  and  is  merely  men- 
tioned here  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  no  Malay  race  has 
worked  out  its  own  salvation.  In  the  Malay  Peninsula 
the  natives  achieved  nothing  until  their  country  came 
under  the  aegis  of  Britain,  and  the  development  of  mineral 
wealth  which  has  caused  the  prosperity  of  the  peninsula 
has  been  accomplished  not  by  Malay  but  by  Chinese 
labour.  It  therefore  seems  inevitable  that  Borneo  must 
depend  largely  on  outside  races  for  its  future,  or  rather 
on  one  outside  race  —  the  Chinese. 

We  now  come  again  to  the  question  which  must  con- 
stantly recur  in  this  study  of  the  Pacific  —  the  labour 
problem.  It  is  hardly  understood  in  England  and  the 
States  how  serious  this  difficulty  has  already  become. 
We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the  East  as  peopled  with 
more  or  less  tractable  natives  who  can  be  bent  to  our 


268  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

will  and  used,  but  the  fact  is  that  of  all  the  peoples  of  the 
East  one,  and  one  only,  seems  to  fulfil  the  required  condi- 
tions —  the  Chinaman  is  general  factotum,  and  we  can- 
not get  on  without  him.  Other  races  deteriorate  and  die 
out,  cannot  assimilate  themselves  to  new  conditions,  can- 
not organise  for  purposes  of  trade,  will  not  work  on  con- 
tract, become  agitators,  and  the  cause  of  political  troubles 
like  the  Japanese  in  Hawaii ;  but  the  Chinaman,  unpopu- 
lar as  he  is,  does  none  of  these  things.  He  seems  to  be 
able  to  start  without  capital  and  in  a  few  years  build  up 
a  business ;  he  is  peaceable,  easily  governed,  industrious, 
and  punctual.  He  used  to  be  cheap,  but  alas !  times  are 
changed.  John  is  beginning  to  appreciate  his  own  indis- 
pensability,  and  already  we  have  seen  how  in  Singapore 
and  Hong  Kong  the  price  of  service  is  increased,  while 
John  in  the  higher  walks  of  life  has  waxed  fat  and 
kicks. 

As  for  John  in  North  Borneo,  he  has  been  for  ages 
the  petty  trader  and  middleman  of  the  island,  and  every 
place  on  the  coast  has  its  row  of  tidy  shops,  its  wonder- 
fully stocked  stores,  and  little  colony  of  coolies,  but 
John  cannot  be  persuaded  to  go  inland.  A  large  find 
of  minerals  would  tempt  him,  as  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
for  that  leads  to  big  wages  and  a  quick  return  for  the 
labour  expended ;  but  to  work  in  the  jungle  on  the  rail- 
way, to  settle,  and  become  agriculturists  and  reclaim  the 
land  bit  by  bit  —  that  is  not  to  his  liking,  and  the  offer 
of  the  British  North  Borneo  Company  of  three  acres  of 
land  and  a  free  passage  met  last  year  with  response 
from  only  ten  individuals.  Nevertheless,  the  present 
Chinese  population  is  of  great  importance,  and  the  opium 
farms  controlled  by  them  are  a  valuable  asset  to  Govern- 
ment. It  is  perhaps  necessary  to  explain,  in  view  of  the 


BRITISH   NORTH  BORNEO  269 

opposition  raised  in  certain  quarters  to  Chinese  immi- 
gration, that  this  naturally  occurs  in  self-governing  colo- 
nies or  territories,  where  the  Chinaman  is  not  a  good 
citizen,  although  often  a  useful  subject.  Opposition  also 
occurs  in  countries  like  the  Philippines  where  the  govern- 
ing race  are  anxious  to  protect  the  natives.  It  is  there- 
fore in  a  constantly  narrowing  circle  of  countries  that 
John  is  welcome,  but  despite  that  fact  he  is  so  essential 
that  he  will  not  be  driven  to  take  refuge  in  uncongenial 
spheres. 

There  remains  the  question  of  settlement  by  Euro- 
peans, and  this,  save  for  overseeing  and  directing,  is  out 
of  the  question.  Labuan  is  sometimes  quoted  as  pos- 
sessing a  climate  suitable  for  Europeans,  and  it  is  true 
that  on  the  hill-tops  of  the  little  range  which  runs  through 
it  a  breeze  is  generally  to  be  had.  But  to  say  that 
the  island  generally  is  blessed  with  a  temperate  climate 
is  certainly  inaccurate,  and  down  by  the  coast  it  is  ex- 
tremely malarious  and  unhealthy.  The  first  British 
troops  sent  there  at  the  time  of  the  -occupation  had  their 
barracks  in  the  town  and  were  nearly  decimated  by 
fever.  European  children  are  pale  and  languid,  while 
adults  suffer  in  various  ways  unless  they  can  go  home  at 
intervals.  North  Borneo  generally  is  still  in  too  wild  a 
state  to  be  healthy.  With  the  clearing  of  jungle  and 
draining  of  swamps  it  will  no  doubt  improve,  but  at 
present  fever  is  a  terrible  scourge,  and  the  Company's 
officials  are  constantly  down  with  it.  The  writer  on  his 
short  journey  inland  passed  one  day  a  post  where  were 
two  young  follows,  cadets  of  the  Company,  in  charge  of 
the  telegraph  line.  One  was  down  with  fever,  the  other 
quite  well.  A  day  or  two  later,  on  the  return  journey, 
the  second  was  found  to  be  also  fever-stricken,  and  so 


270  THE  MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

weak  he  could  hardly  be  taken  down  the  river  to  the 
house  of  a  doctor  at  the  next  station.  There  were  about 
twenty  English  ladies  altogether  in  North  Borneo  at  the 
time  of  the  writer's  visit,  and  they  are  not  able  to  keep 
their  health  without  going  away  frequently.  It  is  im- 
possible to  leave  the  subject  without  a  tribute  to  the 
pluck  and  cheerfulness  displayed  by  Englishwomen 
under  such  conditions.  Life  in  the  outposts  of  our  Em- 
pire is  often  trying  to  men,  and  the  Europeans  of  North 
Borneo  have  much  in  their  lot  to  make  it  especially  so 
to  women.  At  Labuan  and  Sandakan  a  certain  stand- 
ard of  comfort  is  reached,  but  even  there  no  ice  is  to 
be  had  unless  a  passing  ship  has  a  little  to  spare.  San- 
dakan is  fortunate  enough  at  times  to  get  some  frozen 
mutton  from  Hong  Kong,  but  the  usual  meat  is  beef  from 
the  scraggy  cattle  that  have  been  imported,  and  even 
this  is  not  to  be  had  except  at  Sandakan  and  Labuan. 
Generally  a  few  precious  cows  and  goats  are  kept  for  milk, 
while  at  most  places  neither  beef  nor  milk  is  to  be  had, 
only  tinned  meat  and  game.  A  small  deer  is  sometimes 
to  be  shot,  and  there  are  usually  plenty  of  wild  duck, 
pigeons,  and  other  birds,  while  on  the  coast  fish  is  abun- 
dant, but  the  only  real  stand-by  is  the  eternal  fowl,  of 
which  one  gets  so  tired  in  the  East.  Housekeeping  is 
no  sinecure  even  in  the  coast  towns,  and  up-country  the 
men  subsist  entirely  on  tinned  things,  and  the  writer 
only  saw  one  who  had  a  vegetable  garden  and  some 
goats  which  he  kept  for  their  milk.  Sandakan,  in  regu- 
lar communication  with  Hong  Kong,  is  able  to  obtain 
supplies  punctually,  but  the  communication  between 
Singapore  and  the  West  coast,  of  which  mention  will  be 
made  later,  is  so  irregular  that  the  island  of  Labuan  has 
been  known  to  run  out  of  soda-water  —  it  does  not  sound 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  271 

very  serious,  but  imagine  this  in  the  middle  of  the  hot 
season,  and  with  no  ice  or  spring  water. 

The  great  drawback  to  the  country  is  poverty.  The 
Company  has  the  bugbear  of  dividends  ever  before  its 
eyes.  The  salaries  of  officials  are  too  small  to  allow  them 
any  margin  for  luxuries,  which  in  the  East  are  almost 
necessities,  and  added  to  this  there  is  no  pension  on 
retiring,  so  that  men  must  either  attempt  to  save  or  else 
look  out  for  better  posts.  The  appointments  are  without 
examination,  though  cadets  must  pass  in  Malay  after  a 
residence  of  so  many  months.  The  colloquial  Malay,  it 


A  NORTH   BORNEO   COAST  TOWN 


may  be  added,  is  extremely  easy  to  acquire,  and  is  a  sort 
of  lingua  Franca  on  the  coast,  but  it  is  a  matter  for  regret 
that  none  of  the  officials  speak  any  of  the  numerous 
native  dialects. 

Notwithstanding  these  things,  the  personnel  of  the 
Company's  Civil  Service  is  wonderfully  satisfactory. 
At  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit  the  post  of  Governor 
was  filled  by  Hugh  Clifford,  well  known  as  a  successful 
official  in  the  Malay  States  and  the  brilliant  writer  on 
Malay  life  and  character  whose  studies  divide  with  those 
of  Sir  Frank  Swettenham  the  honour  of  being  the  most 
truthful  and  illuminating  pictures  of  this  interesting  race 
ever  published.  Mr.  Clifford's  views  as  to  what  was 


272  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

wanted  in  North  Borneo  were  not  in  accordance  with 
the  policy  of  the  Company,  and  he  accordingly  resigned 
his  post  and  left  the  island  after  a  year's  residence,  dur- 
ing which  he  had  gained  the  affection  and  respect  of  the 
entire  staff  and  had  instituted  some  very  useful  reforms. 
He  was  succeeded  by  another  able  and  popular  official 
from  the  Straits,  Mr.  Birch.  As  to  other  posts,  that  of 
Colonial  Secretary  is  filled  by  a  man  who  has  devoted 
his  life  to  the  study  of  the  country,  while  the  offices  of 
Treasurer  General,  Auditor  General,  Postmaster  Gen- 
eral, Head  of  Customs  (one  is  inclined  to  add,  Lord 
High  Everybody  Else)  are  filled  by  a  hard-worked  and 
painstaking  official  at  Sandakan,  who  has  spent  thirty 
years  in  the  country  and  has  great  influence  over  the 
natives. 

It  is  obvious  that  very  multifarious  duties  must  fall  to 
the  lot  of  the  subordinates  of  the  Company  who  are  sent 
as  Residents  (with  a  few  Sikhs)  to  maintain  order  and 
administer  justice  in  wide  and  lawless  districts.  These 
officials  are  often,  owing  to  the  lack  of  senior  men,  mere 
cadets  who  have  only  been  a  short  time  in  the  country 
and  are  entirely  fresh  to  the  work.  The  devoted  manner 
in  which  they  perform  their  duties,  isolated,  surrounded 
by  semi-savages,  often  ill  and  badly  fed,  is  a  pleasant 
proof  that  Britons  still  have  those  qualities  which  have 
made  them  a  great  colonising  power.  It  may  be  added 
that  as  a  rule  they  are  men  of  good  family  and  education 
—  the  class,  in  fact,  which  has  always  succeeded  best  in 
dealing  with  natives.  It  is  impossible  to  refrain  from 
telling  the  story  of  a  young  fellow  who,  at  the  time  of 
the  writer's  visit,  had  been  for  four  years  at  the  most 
remote  and  isolated  post  of  the  telegraph  line.  He  was 
absolutely  alone,  except  for  a  few  Dyak  police,  among  the 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  273 

people  called  Muruts,  whose  character  I  have  already 
described.  His  chief  link  with  the  world  was  the  tele- 
phone wire  which  connected  him  with  the  nearest  post, 
and  through  this  the  lonely  man  conversed  every  day. 
A  further  distraction  was  introduced  when  his  next-door 
neighbour  got  a  gramaphone,  and  these  two,  with  some 
thirty  miles  of  broken  country  between  them,  sat  every 
evening  and  chuckled  as  the  instrument  wheezed  out 
"  Daisy  Bell  "  or  "  Killaloo."  A  man  who  could  live  like 
that,  maintain  complete  order  in  the  drunken  tribe 
around  him  (who  had  become  much  attached  to  him), 
and  be  described  as  one  of  the  best  officials  in  the 
Company,  is  too  good  to  be  wasted. 

There  is  really  only  one  town  in  British  North  Borneo, 
Sandakan,  the  capital,  which  lies  in  a  splendid  bay,  is  capa- 
ble of  accommodating  a  squadron,  and  is  backed  by  a  line 
of  hills  on  the  top  of  which  a  cooling  breeze  can  be  ob- 
tained. Sandakan,  made  pleasant  to  visitors  by  the  hos- 
pitality of  the  Company's  officials,  is  a  lovely  spot.  There 
are  rides  round  the  cliffs  on  the  coast  which  are  made 
shady  all  the  way  by  giant  ferns  and  palms ;  there  is  the 
quaintest  of  Malay  villages  running  out  into  the  water  on 
one  side,  and  a  flourishing  Chinese  quarter  with  a  big 
bazaar  on  the  other.  There  is  a  hospitable  club,  with 
pretty  tennis  lawns,  where  a  Filipino  band  plays  really  well 
several  times  a  week.  The  private  bungalows  surrounded 
by  shady  gardens  climb  up  the  sides  of  the  hills,  and  are 
extending  further  afield  till  the  latest  ones  lose  sight  of 
the  town  and  look  over  the  other  side,  where  again  is  the 
sea,  for  Sandakan  lies  on  a  small  peninsula.  There  are 
no  carriages,  for  the  roads  are  far  too  steep  and  in 
the  rains  are  frequently  washed  away.  Every  one 
rides  the  sturdy  little  Sulu  ponies,  or  is  carried  in  one  of 


274  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

the  half-dozen  chairs  by  Chinese  coolies.  Going  out  to 
dinner  in  these  chairs  is  something  of  an  experience,  for 
the  angles  at  which  one  is  tilted  arouse  the  liveliest  ap- 
prehensions when  the  road  is  pitch  dark.  The  ladies 
usually  prefer  to  fasten  up  their  silk  skirts  and  trust  to 
their  sure-footed  ponies. 

The  official  who  lives  at  Sandakan  has  already  been 
referred  to,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  Governor  rules  over 
the  place  with  fatherly  benignity.  He  knows  every  man, 
woman,  and  child,  and  all  come  to  him  with  their  griev- 
ances. It  is  said  that  if  they  are  allowed  to  tell  their  story 
in  their  own  way  they  will,  after  every  one  has  had  his  say, 
accept  his  decision  without  a  murmur,  and  as  this  method 
of  dealing  with  the  Malay  is  one  that  deserves  trial  in  other 
parts  of  the  Archipelago,  a  story  illustrating  it  may  not 
be  out  of  place.  A  certain  Chief,  in  a  more  or  less  pirati- 
cal excursion  up  one  of  the  North  Bornean  rivers, 
espied  the  daughter  of  a  powerful  sultan,  and  desiring  her 
in  marriage  made  advances  to  her  father.  He  was  at  first 
refused,  but  at  length  told  that  on  payment  of  a  substan- 
tial price  he  might  have  the  maiden.  So  he  sailed  away 
in  his  canoes  and,  collecting  all  the  treasures  he  could 
beg,  borrow,  or  steal,  came  back  to  demand  his  bride. 
The  presents  were  accepted,  but  more  shilly-shallying  fol- 
lowed, and  at  length  he  was  driven  away  without  the 
object  of  his  affections.  This  story  was  a  matter  of  forty 
years  old,  but  recently  the  devout  lover,  visiting  the  fam- 
ily of  his  former  lady-love,  had  been  annoyed  to  see, 
among  their  most  prized  possessions,  a  bronze  inlaid  gun 
which  had  been  part  of  the  loot  he  had  parted  with.  He 
now  brought  a  suit  for  its  recovery.  While  evidence  was 
being  given  a  third  old  man  was  seen  shaking  his  head 
and  muttering,  and  he  announced  to  the  arbitrator  that 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO 


275 


he  too  had  been  cheated,  the  maiden  being  originally 
his  betrothed,  and  that  by  suing  for  her  hand  Chief  num- 
ber one  had  injured  him,.  The  unravelling  of  this  ancient 
history  took  many  days,  but  at  the  end  every  one  was 
satisfied.  The  award  was  that,  as,  every  one  had  behaved 


JOLO   CHIEF  AND   ATTENDANTS 

badly  (more  or  less)  in  the  matter,  the  gun  should  be 
sold  and  the  money  given  to  the  priest  for  the  mosque ! 
One  more  story  illustrating  the  blind  confidence  of  the 
Malay  in  the  White  Man  who  has  won  his  confidence. 
A  poor  fellow  working  in  some  sawmills  was  terribly 


276  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

scalded  by  the  bursting  of  a  boiler.  He  was  taken  to  the 
hospital,  wrapped  in  oil  and  cotton-wool,  and  made  as 
comfortable  as  possible  till  the  doctor  should  arrive. 
The  official  already  mentioned  was  near  by  and  came 
at  once  to  the  spot  to  do  what  he  could.  "  Tuan " 
(master),  groaned  the  sufferer ;  "  help  me  !  "  "  Lie  still, 
lie  still,  my  poor  fellow ;  the  doctor  will  come  soon  and 
will  put  you  all  right."  Restless  with  pain,  the  man  tried 
to  rise,  "  Help  me  !  Help  me !  Tuan?  "  Lie  still,  keep 
quiet  till  the  doctor  comes,"  said  the  Englishman  pity- 
ingly, and  there  was  silence  for  a  time.  Then  the  light 
grew  clearer  in  the  tortured  eyes,  the  poor  half-savage 
raised  himself  to  a  sitting  posture,  and  said  in  a  quiet, 
calm  voice,  "  If  Tuan  —  my  master — cannot  help  me  — 
then  —  then  —  I  am  brave  to  die !  "  and  so  saying  he  fell 
back  on  the  pillows,  and  the  spark  of  life  went  out  like 
the  flame  of  a  candle. 

Labuan,  the  second  town  in  importance  to  Sandakan, 
although  the  sanatorium  of  the  island,  is  one  of  the  deadest 
places  imaginable.  There  is  an  air  of  departed  life  about 
it;  the  ghosts  of  past  British  occupation  fill  it  with  melan- 
choly. The  deserted,  untidy  wharf  with  a  few  solitary 
corrugated-iron  go-downs,  the  straggling  row  of  Chinese 
shops,  the  long  white  road  bordered  with  cheap  wooden 
bungalows  —  the  Eurasians  trying  to  keep  their  rooms 
cool  with  grass  blinds  —  and  smothered  in  palms  and  rank 
greenery —  all  these  lead  to  the  pretty  Government  House, 
standing  in  park-like  scenery,  but  so  situated  that  the 
breeze  cannot  reach  it.  The  heat  is  intense.  Beyond  this 
the  road  winds  up  past  some  better  built  bungalows  and 
on  to  the  hill-tops,  where  are  the  uncomfortable-looking 
wooden  hospital,  the  telegraph  quarters,  and  the  ceme- 
teries. A  tragic  interest  hangs  round  these  forlorn  little 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  277 

burying-grounds,  overgrown  with  grass  and  weeds,  for 
here,  too  often,  the  dead  cannot  rest  in  peace.  One  par- 
ticular grave  has  been  rifled  three  times,  and  the  bones 
spread  abroad,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  outrage  is  the 
work  of  some  of  the  ruder  tribes  among  which  the  man 
who  was  buried  once  used  to  live,  and  that  they  are 
hunting  for  something  they  believe  him  to  have  pos- 
sessed, or  for  some  portion  of  his  skeleton  as  an  amulet. 
This  horrible  practice  of  disturbing  graves  has  been 
common  among  the  wilder  Malays,  and  when  a  former 
Governor  of  Labuan  in  Crown  Colony  days  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  lose  his  wife,  he  was  so  much  afraid  that  her 
tomb  might  be  desecrated  that,  at  dead  of  night,  with  the 
aid  of  an  old  and  faithful  Malay  servant,  he  buried  her 
in  the  garden  of  Government  House  and  concealed  the 
grave.  Only  the  old  servant,  who  is  still  living,  knows 
the  spot,  though  there  have  been  many  guesses  as  to 
its  locality.  There  .is  buried  treasure  in  Government 
House  garden,  and  the  ghost  of  an  ancient  priest 
wanders  at  night  trying  to  find  some  one  to  help  him  dig 
it  up.  Appearing  on  one  occasion  to  a  Governor's  wife, 
he  frightened  her  so  that  she  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
place.  The  ancient  priest  is  no  figment  of  the  imagina- 
tion, but  really  existed  and  is  remembered  by  many.  Half 
Spanish,  half  Malay,  he  was  a  pirate  in  the  Malay  seas, 
and  in  one  of  the  islands  had  come  across  some  of  those 
hidden  treasures  which  every  Malay  believes  to  exist 
all  over  the  Archipelago.  He  was  smitten  with  repen- 
tance for  his  evil'life,  took  half  of  the  treasure  and  buried 
it  in  Government  House  garden  and  with  the  other  half 
went  to  Rome,  purchased  the  forgiveness  of  his  misdeeds, 
and  returned  in  priest's  garb  to  labour  for  the  rest  of  his 
life  among  his  quondam  associates.  But  whether  Father 


278  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Quateron  had  forgotten  the  exact  site  of  his  buried  wealth, 
or  whether  he  put  off  digging  it  up  until  too  late,  the 
writer  cannot  tell.  Enough  that,  as  twilight  falls  over  the 
grassy  slopes  with  their  shady  trees,  and  the  little  gleam 
of  blue  water  in  the  distance  fades  to  a  streak  of  white 
and  dies  out  altogether,  a  figure  in  a  long  cassock  is  said 
to  wander  through  the  grounds  and  with  white  face  to 
turn  to  the  house  and  implore  assistance  in  his  search. 

Apropos  of  this  story,  it  may  be  said  here  that  the 
Malays  are  intensely  superstitious.  When  Wallace  was 
visiting  the  Dutch  East  Indies  he  was  told  that  one 
island,  Timor,  was  different  from  others  because  there 
were  no  ghosts  there  —  Java,  they  said,  was  full  of 
ghosts,  and  the  word  "  Preanger,"  used  to  signify  a  large 
district  in  that  island,  is  a  Hollandised  version  of  Malay 
words  meaning  the  "country  of  ghosts."  Of  the  other 
"towns"  in  North  Borneo  little  need  be  said.  Kudat 
is  perhaps  the  most  flourishing,  as  it  has  large  fruit  gar- 
dens in  the  neighbourhood.  The  European  population 
of  these  places  consists  generally  of  a  few  officials  — 
Resident,  Assistant,  Doctor,  and  a  clerk  or  two,  with  per- 
haps the  representative  of  a  timber-cutting  Company,  and 
on  the  railway  lines  under  construction  a  few  employees. 
The  tobacco  plantations  are  mostly  some  little  distance 
inland,  and  each  employs  European  overseers  and  man- 
agers. It  has  been  one  of  the  mistakes  of  the  country 
that  in  former  days  a  very  inferior  class  of  men  were 
employed  by  Companies  on  tobacco  plantations.  The 
work  is  extremely  arduous  and,  until  a  good  position  is 
reached,  is  not  well  paid.  The  coolies  need  constant 
supervision  and  take  any  opportunity  for  shirking  their 
work,  or  even  run  away  to  avoid  fulfilling  the  terms  of 
their  contract.  The  punishment  for  such  flight  is  a 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  279 

thrashing,  which  is  administered  by  a  policeman  of 
the  Company  under  direction  of  the  Resident,  and  is 
not  a  very  formidable  affair.  An  amusing  instance  of 
the  effrontery  of  runaway  coolies  occurred  during  the 
writer's  visit,  when  two,  having  escaped  from  the  planta- 
tion, embarked  in  full  daylight  and  attired  in  their  best 
clothes  on  the  steam  yacht  which  was  taking  his  party 
and  the  Resident  of  the  district  to  the  next  port.  A 
messenger  from  the  plantation  arrived  on  the  wharf  just 
as  the  yacht  was  leaving,  and  the  boat  was  put  back  to 
discharge  the  truants. 

While  on  the  subject  of  tobacco  plantations  it  must 
be  said  that  in  the  opinion  of  many  people  almost  all  the 
land  at  present  available  for  that  culture  is  already  taken 
up.  A  very  special  kind  of  land  is  required,  and  im- 
mense areas  to  produce  a  yearly  crop,  since  the  plant  can 
only  be  grown  on  the  same  land  once  every  four  years. 
A  mistake  was  made  in  granting  tobacco  concessions  to 
Companies  without  reserving  the  right  to  take  up  the 
land  in  case  of  non-cultivation.  A  great  deal  of  land  is 
now  lying  fallow  owing  to  the  failure  of  Companies 
brought  about  by  the  incompetency  and  corruption  of 
their  employees.  The  leaf  when  successfully  grown  is 
of  very  fine  quality,  equal  to  anything  produced  in 
other  countries,  and  is  used  chiefly  as  a  wrapper.  The 
whole  tobacco  industry  of  North  Borneo  strikes  one  as 
being  capable  of  far  more  satisfactory  results  if  facilitated 
and  nursed  a  little.  The  most  prosperous  people  in  the 
territory  are  the  managers  of  the  large  estates,  and  the 
only  stone  house,  which  is  also  the  only  stone  building 
except  Sandakan  church  (still  unfinished),  in  North 
Borneo,  is  the  residence  of  a  Dutch  manager  on  the 
north-east  coast. 


28o  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

An  endeavour  has  been  made  in  the  foregoing  pages  to 
give  some  idea  of  the  conditions  of  life,  both  native  and 
European,  in  this  little-known  island,  —  a  few  facts  and 
statistics  which  give  some  idea  of  its  practical  value 
and  importance. 

The  trade  of  British  North  Borneo  in  1899  was 
,£245,700  in  imports  and  ,£344,000  in  exports,  making 
a  total  of  .£589,700,  and  there  has  been  a  steady  increase 
during  the  past  ten  years.  Of  the  exports  tobacco  is  by 
far  the  most  important,  the  others  being  cutch,  timber, 
gutta-percha,  sago,  rattans,  india-rubber,  birds'-nests,  cam- 
phor, trepang,  salt  fish,  damar,  hempseed,  pearls,  mixed 
shell,  and  copra.  Coffee  and  sago  are  also  mentioned  as 
exports,  but  the  output  is  extremely  small,  and  sago,  always 
grown  for  food  by  natives  of  a  low  grade  of  civilisation, 
has  decreased  of  late  years. 

This  is  a  very  significant  list,  for  it  will  be  seen  at  a 
glance  that  tobacco,  the  only  thing  cultivated,  and 
timber  are  practically  the  only  valuable  articles.  The 
others  are  jungle  produce,  and  are  almost  entirely 
absorbed  by  the  Chinese,  who  get  the  rattans,  birds'- 
nests,  and  so  forth  from  the  Dyaks,  whose  one  useful 
occupation  in  life  is  to  hunt  for  them.  It  is  obviously 
not  a  trade  which  admits  of  any  great  expansion,  and 
if  larger  quantities  were  exported  many  of  the  articles 
would  become  scarce. 

The  import  list  includes  all  the  necessities  of  life,  in- 
cluding a  very  large  proportion  of  tinned  provisions  and 
also  in  late  years  of  railway  materials.  The  market  for 
European  goods,  however,  is  mostly  confined  to  the 
Chinese  and  the  personnel  of  the  Company.  The  civi- 
lised Malays  dress  in  cotton,  but  they  are  not  a  spending 
people,  and  the  wilder  tribes  do  not  trouble  about  cos- 


BRITISH   NORTH    BORNEO  281 

tume  at  all,  or  wear  merely  the  native  manufacture. 
They  do  not  want  furniture,  for  their  houses  are  empty, 
and  a  grass-mat  is  all  they  need  for  bed,  table,  or 
chair.  Their  one  extravagance  is  jewellery,  and  this 


A  PRIVATE   FLEET   FROM   JOLO  ARRIVING  AT   KUDAT 

they  buy,  cheap  and  nasty,  from  the  Chinese  traders, 
who  get  it,  cheaper  still,  from  Birmingham  or  "  made 
in  Germany." 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  British  North  Borneo 
Company  are  resting  on  their  oars  and  letting  the  Ter- 
ritory go  its  own  way.  They  are  animated  by  a 
sincere  desire  to  open  up  the  country,  that  being  an 
expression  usually  synonymous  with  success  and  pros- 
perity. The  method  they  have  adopted  has  been  at 
once  ambitious  and  expensive,  but  after  a  careful  study 
the  writer  is  obliged  to  confess  that  there  is  little  chance 
of  its  proving  successful.  As  one  of  the  most  ardent 
advocates  of  improved  communications  in  all  quarters 


282  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

of  the  globe,  he  is  compelled  to  state  that  in  his  opinion 
railways  are  not  the  crying  need  in  North  Borneo. 
There  are  no  promising  agricultural  or  mining  districts 
to  be  tapped,  and  such  trade  as  is  carried  on  has  al- 
ways been  centred  round  the  rivers.  The  natives,  whose 
property  is  in  kind,  will  not  be  benefited  by  a  line, 
however  cheap  freight  may  be,  for  they  can  convey  their 
goods  to  the  coast  almost  free  of  cost  in  their  canoes. 
The  expense  of  laying  a  line  through  dense  jungle  and 
along  precipitous  gorges  has  been  enormous,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  writer's  visit  the  rails  had  already  disappeared 
in  places.  The  question  is  not  one  which  can  be  treated 
in  detail  here,  but  it  must  be  added  that,  from  some 
knowledge  of  railway  engineering,  the  writer  is  inclined 
to  think  that  any  extension  of  railways  into  North  Borneo 
would,  at  the  present  stage  of  its  development,  be  fore- 
doomed to  failure.  In  any  case  the  lines  will  have  to  be 
heavily  subsidised  to  provide  the  cost  of  upkeep.  The 
project  of  running  a  railway  across  from  west  to  east 
is  chimerical,  the  hilly,  broken  nature  of  the  country 
involving  grave  engineering  difficulties. 

Another  drawback  to  the  progress  of  the  country  is 
the  lawless  condition  of  the  interior  tribes,  and  it  must 
be  understood  that  even  the  coast  is  not  free  from  dis- 
turbances. The  actual  settlements  of  the  Company 
have  been  attacked  within  a  comparatively  recent  period. 
Kudat,  at  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit,  was  just  recover- 
ing from  such  an  attack,  in  which  the  guard-house 
and  arsenal  were  actually  taken  possession  of,  and  a 
much  more  serious  result  was  only  averted  by  the  fact 
that  the  invaders  could  not  find  the  right  kind  of  ammu- 
nition for  their  guns.  This  skirmish  was  not  without 
its  humorous  side,  however,  for  a  young  Scotch  official, 


BRITISH   NORTH   BORNEO  283 

stalking  the  marauders  and  not  wishing  to  give  the 
alarm  by  firing,  polished  off  three  with  his  fists,  and  tied 
them  up  while  he  went  to  seek  for  further  victims. 

It  has  been  said  already  that  Chartered  Companies  are 
only  temporary  expedients,  and  it  is  obvious  that  North 
Borneo  requires  treatment  quite  different  from  that  which 
can  be  given  by  such  a  Company.  Money  spent  on 
reducing  the  natives  to  law  and  order,  in  educating  and 
ruling  them,  in  scientific  explorations  of  the  mineral 
wealth  of  the  country,  in  experiments  in  agriculture  and 
fruit  farming,  in  the  introduction  of  various  trees  and 
plants  likely  to  improve  the  soil  or  produce  good  crops, 
in  harbour- works,  roads,  and  railways,  —  all  these  are  for 
a  time  non-productive  measures,  but  without  them  neither 
the  country  nor  the  native  is  given  a  chance.  A  glance 
at  the  sums  spent  originally  on  similar  colonies  will  show 
that  few  have  reached  their  present  state  of  prosperity 
without  great  initial  outlay. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  whether  the  game  is 
worth  the  candle,  and  in  answer  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  statement  of  the  advantages  possessed  by  Borneo 
at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter.  It  is  certain  that  as 
the  Pacific  is  more  and  more  energetically  exploited, 
this  large  island  cannot  be  left  out  of  the  reckoning. 
It  possesses  at  all  events  one  extremely  good  harbour 
on  the  north,  and  that  in  a  position  of  peculiar  im- 
portance now  that  the  Philippines  have  fallen  to  the 
United  States. 

North  Borneo  is  an  uncultivated  estate.  It  is  not  at 
present  a  credit  to  the  nation  whose  flag  protects  it.  It 
presents  difficulties  and  possibilities  which  cannot  be 
solved  or  realised  without  a  change  in  the  present  regime 
—  a  statement  not  intended  to  cast  a  slur  on  the  North 


284 

Borneo  Company,  but  to  indicate  that  a  trading  Com- 
pany cannot  deal  with  the  new  conditions  that  have 
arisen.  The  question  will  certainly  become  imminent 
before  long,  and  when  the  moment  arrives  the  writer 
can  only  hope  that  the  British  Government  will  accept 
the  responsibilities  involved  by  its  presence  in  this  back- 
ward corner  of  the  globe. 


THE    DUTCH    IN   THE    PACIFIC 


BATTAK   WOMEN   WEAVING, 
SUMATRA 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE    EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS 

A  GLANCE  at  the  map  will  show  what  a  vast  possession 
is  that  of  Holland  in  the  East  Indies,  and  also  how  com- 
pact —  on  paper  at  all  events  —  since  the  broad  belt  of 
Dutch  influence  seems  to  gather  up  all  the  islands  from 
Sumatra  on  the  west  to  New  Guinea  on  the  east  within 
some  fifteen  degrees  of  latitude.  The  northern  part  of 
Borneo  and  the  east  side  of  New  Guinea  have  been  cut 
off,  and  are  the  property  of  Great  Britain,  and  Great 
Britain  and  Germany,  respectively,  while  the  decayed 
power  of  Portugal  retains  part  of  the  island  of  Timur. 
Otherwise  Holland  is  supreme  in  this  section  of  the 
Pacific,  which  includes  Java,  the  most  prosperous,  beauti- 
ful, and  fertile  of  all  the  Malay  islands  and  the  one 
which  attained  to  the  greatest  height  of  native  civilisa- 
tion ;  the  Molucca  or  Spice  islands,  originally  the  lode- 
stone  which  drew  the  nations  of  Europe  to  the  Eastern 

287 


288  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

isles ;  South  Borneo,  richest  in  mineral  wealth ;  Celebes, 
occupied  by  the  most  enterprising  traders  of  the  Malay 
race ;  the  large  island  of  Sumatra,  with  its  valuable 
crops  of  tobacco  and  coffee;  and  a  number  of  smaller 
islands,  all  of  a  certain  value. 

When,  in  the  settling  up  of  international  affairs  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  Holland  received 
back  her  East  Indian  territories,  she  was  confronted  by 
difficulties  of  many  kinds.  Java  was  practically  sub- 
dued ;  the  energy  of  Stamford  Raffles,  while  it  had  led 
him  into  administrative  mistakes,  had  certainly  estab- 
lished the  rule  of  the  white  man  firmly  all  over  the 
island,  but  Sumatra  was  almost  a  terra  incognita,  and 
Holland's  influence  in  the  other  islands  was  practically 
limited  to  a  settlement  at  Macassar  and  monopolies 
in  their  principal  produce. 

The  Dutch  have  divided  their  colonial  empire  into 
two  parts,  the  internal  possessions  consisting  of  Java  and 
Madura,  and  the  external  which  include  all  the  other 
islands  or  parts  of  islands. 

In  Java  the  administrative  system  is  elaborate  and 
complete,  but  in  the  smaller  islands  Dutch  rule  is  merely 
of  the  nature  of  slight  supervision.  A  Dutch  official, 
or  contrbleur,  is  generally  found  on  the  more  important, 
and  these  are  grouped  into  Residencies,  but  many  are 
only  visited  by  the  Resident  once  a  year.  The  con- 
trbleur  is  practically  only  an  adviser,  while  the  native 
headman  who  is  supposed  to  hold  office  under  the 
Dutch  Government  is  little  checked  or  assisted  and 
must  get  on  as  best  he  can.  If  anything  has  to  be 
done  by  the  local  Dutch  officials  reference  must  first 
be  made  to  the  Governor-General  at  Buitenzorg  in 
Java,  and  this  system  of  centralisation  has  a  paralysing 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS  289 

effect  on  both  officials  and  traders.  Men  are  said  to 
have  grown  grey  waiting  for  an  answer  to  an  application 
for  a  concession,  and  though  the  writer  cannot  vouch  for 
this  statement  he  can  bear  witness  to  the  grumbling 
that  goes  on  in  every  outpost  of  the  Dutch  Indian 
Empire. 

The  island  next  in  size  to  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Java 
is  Celebes,  chiefly  interesting  by  reason  of  its  peculiar 
flora  and  fauna,  which  belong  to  neither  the  Asiatic  nor 
Australian  groups,  being  deficient  in  their  characteristic 
species  although  possessing  affinities  with  both. 

Of  the  fauna  the  most  remarkable  are  the  ape-baboon, 
the  four-tusked  pig,  and  a  curious  bee-eater,  while  there 
are  several  unique  species  of  birds,  all  of  which  are  only 
remotely  connected  with  groups  now  inhabiting  the 
Asiatic  or  African  continent.  The  zoology  and  botany 
of  Celebes  have  not  as  yet  been  exhaustively  explored. 
The  most  interesting  account  of  the  island  is  given 
by  Wallace,  who  described  with  enthusiasm  the  beau- 
tiful country  and  pleasant  natives  of  the  Minahasa 
district  on  the  north.  The  island  is  divided  into  a  con- 
siderable number  of  native  states  ruled  by  Rajahs,  some 
of  whom  are  assisted  with  advice  by  a  Resident,  while 
others  are  quite  independent,  only  their  foreign  relations 
being  under  supervision.  Internecine  disputes  are  more 
or  less  common.  All  the  natives  so  far  as  known  belong 
to  the  Malay  race,  and  are  in  various  stages  of  civilisa- 
tion, though  some  of  the  mountain  tribes  are  hardly 
more  than  savages,  being  Pagans,  without  writing,  fixed 
government,  or  the  arts  of  weaving  and  of  working  metals. 
The  most  prominent  of  the  natives  are  the  Bugis,  a 
Malay  tribe  of  marked  characteristics  who  at  one  time 
established  their  power  over  a  large  portion  of  the  archi- 


290  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

pelago.  They  are  marked  by  a  more  determined  char- 
acter than  the  average  Malay,  are  great  sea-goers  and 
incorrigible  pirates.  They  have  found  their  way  to 
most  of  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  and  have  espe- 
cially emigrated  in  great  numbers  to  the  east  and  south 
coasts  of  Borneo.  In  referring  to  the  different  branches 
of  the  Malay  family,  it  must  be  remarked  that  to  an 
ordinary  traveller  the  difference  in  appearance  is  so 
slight  as  to  be.  hardly  noticeable.  As  the  writer  made 
his  way  from  island  to  island  he  was  frequently  told, 
"  That  is  a  Bugi,  these  are  Sulus,  yonder  are  some 
Javanese,  those  again  are  Bajaus."  To  the  uninitiated 
all  were  of  the  same  build  and  appearance  —  short, 
slightly  built,  with  copper-coloured  skin,  prominent  cheek- 
bones and  mouths  (though  the  lips  are  never  fleshy  like 
the  negro's),  dark  and  slightly  oblique  eyes,  coarse  black 
hair,  generally  cropped,  wearing  either  a  checked  sarong 
or  a  pair  of  absurd  trousers  of  much-flowered  cotton,  a 
loose  cotton  jacket,  a  round  cap  or  handkerchief  twisted 
round  the  head,  and  a  sash  or  belt  with  a  kris  stuck 
through.  There  are  differences  of  costume,  —  the 
Macassar  men  wear  a  conical  cap,  the  Sulus  a  peaked 
straw  hat  and  tight  embroidered  breeches,  the  Javanese 
who  have  made  the  Mecca  pilgrimage  wear  large  green 
turbans,  —  but  throughout  these  islands  one  is  con- 
stantly struck  with  the  similarity  which  prevails  and 
also  with  the  resemblance  between  the  Malay  and  his 
half-brothers  of  Burma  and  Siam. 

It  is  frequently  insisted  that  the  different  Malay  races 
speak  totally  distinct  languages  and  cannot  understand 
each  other,  and  it  is  certainly  true  that  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago  and  the  Philippines  no  fewer  than  eleven 
distinct  methods  of  writing  have  been  evolved,  all  bear- 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS  291 

ing  evidences  of  having  been  invented  independently  of 
each  other,  but  at  the  same  time  all  framed  on  similar 
principles.  When,  however,  we  recollect  the  vagaries  of 
spoken  language  among  our  own  uneducated  people  — 
the  difference  in  dialect,  for  instance,  between  a  Sussex 
yokel  and  a  Lancashire  lad,  or  a  Cockney  and  a  Southron 
Scot  —  and  remember  that  the  Malay  tribes  have  evolved 
their  languages  in  distant,  isolated  islands,  we  cannot  be 
surprised  at  its  many  forms.  The  low  Malay,  spoken 
generally  on  the  coasts  of  all  the  islands  and  at  Singa- 
pore, is  full  of  words  borrowed  from  many  languages, 
especially  from  Arabic,  and  bears  little  relation  to  the 
older  and  purer  forms. 

Macassar  is  the  principal  town  of  Celebes  and  the 
most  important  in  the  Dutch  Indies  next  to  the  cities  of 
Java.  Its  open  harbour  is  a  straight  line  half  a  mile 
long,  backed  with  numerous  godowns  and  offices,  and 
often  crowded  with  native  craft,  above  which  rise  some 
of  the  larger  Chinese  trading  ships  and  perhaps  the 
mail-steamer  of  the  Java  North  Coast  service.  Macas- 
sar has  fortnightly  communication  with  Sourabaya  di- 
rect, and  other  steamers  call  only  at  intervals  of  several 
weeks,  so  the  traveller  may  easily  be  stranded  for  ten 
days  without  a  chance  to  get  away.  There  is  no  direct 
line  from  Singapore  or  British  Borneo,  so  that  foreign 
visitors  are  few  and  far  between,  and  the  English  resi- 
dents number  only  two  or  three.  The  fortress  built  by 
the  -Portuguese  still  stands,  and  the  walls  are  bristling 
with  guns  —  probably  useless.  Behind  these  walls  is  a 
surprise  for  all  who  have  not  travelled  in  the  Dutch 
Indies  before  —  a  Dutch  town,  where  least  we  should 
expect  it,  in  this  far-away  corner  of  the  East,  with  red- 
tiled  roofs,  pointed  gables,  and  glass  windows  with  small 


292  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

panes.  The  streets  are  drained  by  canals,  there  is  a 
church  and  belfry,  and  a  big  well-built  stone  club-house, 
close  to  which  stands  the  not  over-comfortable  hotel. 
The  whole  district  is  flat,  and  beautiful  roads  lead  to  the 
country,  —  wide,  grass-edged,  and  over-arched  by  splen- 
did trees.  Except  at  the  harbour  there  is  an  air  of  quiet 
and  somnolence  over  all.  It  is  easy  to  realise  that  this  is 
one  of  the  places  where  for  two  centuries  the  Dutch  have 
been  sitting  still,  making  money  slowly,  and  never  infested 
with  the  restless  desire  to  do  more,  or  the  unconquerable 
tendency  to  spread  out  over  the  country  and  try  to 
prevent  the  natives  from  making  fools  of  themselves, 
which  would  have  attacked  Englishmen  under  similar 
conditions. 

Coffee  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  district,  and  also 
in  the  Menando  Residency  at  the  north  of  the  island, 
in  the  beautiful  country  so  admired  by  Wallace.  This 
district  bears  eloquent  testimony  to  the  good  work 
done  by  Holland  when  she  really  attempted  it,  but  it 
must  be  noted  that  the  reformation  was  almost  entirely 
due  to  the  discovery  of  commercial  possibilities  in  the 
country.  Until  1822,  when  Holland  had  practically 
been  in  possession  for  a  century  and  a  half,  nothing  had 
been  done  beyond  the  establishment  of  a  small  Dutch 
settlement,  but  the  discovery  that  the  elevated  land 
was  suitable  for  coffee  brought  about  the  introduction 
of  the  "  culture  system  "  under  Javanese  instructors.  The 
people,  hitherto  Pagan  savages,  took  kindly  to  the 
new  regime,  finding  that  they  could  earn  more  by  work 
on  the  plantations  and  purchase  better  food  and  clothing. 
The  headmen  invested  with  responsibility  rose  to  the 
occasion,  villages  were  improved,  churches  and  schools 
built,  and  now  a  beautiful,  highly  cultivated  land  has  tidy 


TYPICAL   LANDING    STAGE  AND    BUNGALOW 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS  293 

villages,  with  flower  gardens  and  fruit  trees,  and  a  happy, 
well-dressed,  and  peaceful  people  of  whom  a  large 
number  are  Christians.  The  residential  town  is  neat 
and  pretty,  and  an  excellent  road  system  connects  the 
towns  and  villages.  The  writer  was  not  able  personally 
to  visit  this  earthly  paradise,  where  crime  is  said  to  be 
almost  unknown,  but  all  travellers  agree  as  to  the  unusu- 
ally satisfactory  state  of  affairs,  and  attribute  it  largely  to 
the  introduction  of  the  forced  labour  system.  This 
method,  so  foreign  to  the  traditions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
has  been  widely  condemned,  but  one  point  raised  by 
Wallace  in  his  description  of  this  very  place  is  worth  con- 
sideration. The  people  are  obliged  to  sell  to  Government 
only  all  the  coffee  they  grow.  Government  pays  a  fixed 
price,  and  that  is  just  sufficient  to  maintain  life  comfort- 
ably—  there  is  no  margin  for  extra  expenditure  on 
European  liquors  and  other  articles  demoralising  to  the 
native.  This  limitation  has  made  the  Minahasan  a  happy 
native,  and  the  education  granted  him  is  not  sufficient 
to  breed  a  divine  discontent.  He  is  happy  because  he 
has  food,  shelter,  sunshine,  leisure  to  play  a  drum  or  a 
bamboo  flute,  flowers  to  look  at,  and  a  numerous  family 
growing  up  around  him.  He  knows  nothing  better  and 
consequently  has  no  ambitions.  Is  he,  or  is  he  not,  a 
truly  happy  man  ?  It  must  be  owned  that  the  sleepiness 
and  lack  of  enterprise  even  in  this  favoured  district  would 
send  an  Englishman  or  American  crazy,  or  drive  him  to 
drastic  measures  in  order  to  make  things  "  hum." 

Opposite  the  island  of  Celebes  lies  the  east  coast  of 
Borneo.  On  the  Dutch  part  of  this  island  little  or 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  the  country. 
Whereas  the  British  territory  is  closely  backed  by  high 
mountains,  and  the  very  coast  is  high  and  broken,  the 


294  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

eastern  and  southern  sides  of  the  island  present  a  uni- 
form low  straight  line,  only  broken  by  the  deltas  of  the 
great  rivers. 

Dutch  Borneo  is  almost  as  unexplored  as  most  parts 
of  New  Guinea.  The  coast  has  a  sparse  sprinkling  of 
piratical  natives,  the  rivers  have  a  population  living  half 
on  the  banks  and  half  in  the  water,  and  there  are  one  or 
two  sultanates  some  little  distance  inland  which  own  alle- 
giance to  Holland.  The  late  Sultan  of  Kotei,  whose 
dominions  the  writer  visited,  is  thoroughly  typical  of  a 
third-rate  nineteenth  century  Rajah  under  European  in- 
fluence. Having  visited  some  of  the  Dutch  officials, 
whose  principal  settlement  is  some  miles  further  down 
the  Kotei  river,  he  acquired  a  great  taste  for  the  latest 
products  of  civilisation  and  promptly  ordered  quantities 
of  musical  boxes,  steam  launches,  jewellery,  mechanical 
toys,  and  other  costly  articles,  while  the  whole  of  his 
recently  erected  palace  was  lit  with  electric  light.  He 
displayed  great  indignation,  however,  when  requested 
to  pay  for  these  things,  and  many  of  his  debtors  are  still 
vainly  trying  to  extract  a  few  pounds  out  of  his 
successor. 

Samarinda,  the  chief  trading  place  on  the  Kotei,  the 
largest  river  of  Borneo,  is  worthy  of  a  short  description. 
On  one  bank  of  the  wide  stream  is  a  Malay  town,  built 
as  usual  on  piles  standing  half  in  half  out  of  the  water. 
Everybody  rows  about  instead  of  walking.  Small  boys 
who  have  not  yet  arrived  at  the  dignity  of  clothing 
scoop  out  canoes  for  themselves  and  paddle  about 
with  the  utmost  independence,  liking  nothing  better 
than  to  shoot  across  the  wake  of  the  steamer  and  rock 
about  in  her  wash.  It  is  an  ordinary  sight  to  see  a 
naked  youngster  sitting  on  the  extreme  end  of  his  little 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS 


295 


canoe,  so  that  his  feet  are  in  the  water  and  his  boat 
tilted  right  up  behind.  How  he  maintains  his  balance  is 
a  marvel,  but  he  sits  thus  paddling  leisurely  for  hours. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  river  are  wharves,  each  stacked 
with  a  different  commodity,  then  godowns,  and  then  a 
Chinese  street  with  the  usual  shops  and  the  usual  gutter 
where  children  and  fowls  play  together.  At  one  end  a 
few  whitewashed  bungalows  proclaim  the  presence  of 


ON   THE    RIVER,    SAMARINDA 


Europeans,  and  the  "  Hotel  Wilhelmina  "  stands  in  an 
enclosure  in  which  an  attempt  at  gardening  has  resulted 
in  a  fine  crop  of  ornamental  flower  pots  and  a  few  dusty 
hibiscus.  The  "  Hotel  Wilhelmina "  is  not  inviting, 
despite  a  plentiful  coat  of  whitewash  over  its  exterior, 
but  at  the  other  end  of  the  town  is  a  pretty,  shady  road 
leading  up  a  small  hill,  where  are  some  pleasant-looking, 
palm-shaded  bungalows. 

Banjermassin,  an  important  town  on  the  Barito  river 


296  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

which  empties  itself  on  the  south  coast,  is  altogether 
more  pretentious.  It  possesses  large  native  markets, 
several  European  stores,  a  club-house  with  a  garden  and 
shady  trees  under  which  the  ante-dinner  pahit  may  be 
consumed,  several  public  buildings,  schools,  and  so  forth. 
Banjermassin  has  also  a  garrison  and  a  large  barrack 
and  hospital,  but  the  feature  of  the  place  is  a  lovely 
road  called  the  Boomplatz,  shaded  by  trees  specially 
imported  and  planted  (for  this  is  a  country  where  only 
palms  and  low  scrub  are  found),  and  having  a  canal 
on  either  side.  The  word  canal  does  not  conjure  up 
visions  of  beauty,  and  in  the  daytime,  when  the  sun  beats 
fiercely  down,  one  is  inclined  to  look  askance  on  these 
sluggish  waters,  even  though  they  are  flushed  daily  by 
the  rising  of  the  tide,  for  into  them  goes  the  drainage 
of  the  houses  on  either  side.  But  walk  in  the  Boom- 
platz by  moonlight  —  the  tropical  moonlight  —  and  the 
scene  has  a  weird  beauty  quite  indescribable.  The  road 
is  covered  with  a  lace-work  of  black  on  white,  deepen- 
ing to  inky  shadows  at  the  sides,  through  which  the 
white  trunks  of  palms  rise  like  spectres,  while  a  thou- 
sand tiny,  jewelled  lights  flash  to  and  fro  —  the  fire- 
flies. The  whole  scene — overarching  branches  through 
which  the  stars  are  peeping,  shadowy  shapes  of  dark- 
ness and  slender  shafts  of  silver  —  is  reflected  in  the 
streaks  of  water  on  either  side.  The  pale  palms  wave 
slightly  in  the  evening  breeze  and  their  paler  reflec- 
tions quiver,  breaking  the  ebony  and  silver  mirrors  into 
a  thousand  ripples. 

Our  first  view  of  the  Boomplatz  was  at  night,  and  the 
illusion  was  heightened  by  the  shadowy,  swathed  figures 
with  dark  eyes  that  passed  us  in  the  moonlight.  In  the 
morning,  as  people  took  a  constitutional  at  about  6.30 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS 


297 


A.M.  and  already  began  to  feel  the  sun  too  hot,  the 
Boomplatz  was  like  a  pretty  shady  country  road  at 
home,  and  to  carry  out  the  simile  there  were  the  children 
coming  along  to  school  with  satchels  and  books,  clean 
white  frocks  and  suits,  and  a  general  air  of  having  been 
recently  brushed  and  washed.  But  these  were  no  healthy, 
pink-cheeked  Dutch  children,  but  little  wizened  imps  with 
skins  varying  from  a  sickly  yellow  to  a  dirty  brown,  the 


IN  THE  BOOMPLATZ,   BANJERMASSIN 

blackest  and  biggest  of  eyes,  and  skinny  little  arms  and 
legs,  browner  and  yellower  in  contrast  with  their  white 
clothes. 

It  was  here  that  we  were  brought  face  to  face  with 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  Holland,  though 
one  of  which  she  is  practically  oblivious.  There  is  no 
racial  distinction  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  the  Eura- 
sians, as  we  call  them,  taking  much  the  same  place  in 


298  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

society  as  their  white  fathers.  Also  the  Dutch  sol- 
diers enlisted  in  the  colonial  army,  being  without  any 
facilities  or  encouragement  to  seek  a  wife  of  their  own 
blood,  invariably  contract  ties  with  native  women.  No 
sight  is  more  common  than  that  of 
a  white  man  in  Dutch  uniform  walk- 
ing through  the  town  accompanied 
by  a  brown  wife  and  several  yellow 
pickaninnies.  The  arrangement  is 
more  than  winked  at,  it  is  absolutely 
recognised,  and  in  some  cases  no 

THE   MORNING   WALK  .          .  ,  , 

doubt  a  form  of  marriage  is  gone 
through.  In  Banjermassin  a  pure-blooded  white  child 
is  hardly  to  be  found. 

Besides  the  Boomplatz  there  is  little  to  admire  in  Ban- 
jermassin. The  ramshackle  hotel  built  over  a  swamp, 
where  the  slops  are  just  poured  out  of  the  window,  and 
all  deficiencies  and  signs  of  damp  in  the  rooms  are  cov- 
ered with  a  coat  of  whitewash,  is  not  a  place  to  stay  long 
at,  albeit  the  food  is  fairly  good ;  mosquitoes  are  rampant, 
and  after  a  glance  at  the  stagnant  water  around  one  is 
not  surprised.  Fever  must  be  common  in  this  low-lying 
place,  for  the  ground  on  which  the  town  stands  is  in 
parts  below  the  river  level. 

The  interest  and  fascination  of  river  life  is  strong  in 
these  Malay  lands,  where  the  people  are  almost  amphib- 
ious and  splash  about  in  the  water  from  the  time  they 
are  babies.  The  scenery  on  the  Banjermassin  river 
reminded  one  constantly  of  Burma.  The  wide,  slow 
stream,  palm-fringed  banks,  great  piles  of  golden  fruit 
—  bananas  and  oranges  mostly,  —  the  little  cockleshell 
boats;  the  family  parties  going  for  an  evening  row, 
the  women  with  their  bright-coloured  sarongs  round  their 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS  299 

heads ;  the  graceful  gondola-shaped  boats  of  the  wealthy 
natives  and  Chinese,  who  have  abandoned  merely  utili- 
tarian forms  and  have  carved  great  swan-like  prows  and 
elaborately  decorated  awnings  —  all  these  glide  over  the 
sunlit  water  to  the  musical  splash  of  the  paddles.  The 
drowsy  heat,  the  brilliant  colour,  the  brown  faces,  and 
the  soft  accents  of  the  Malay  tongue,  seem  like  echoes  of 


ON  THE  BARITO   RIVER 


scenes  in  a  far-off  sunny  past,  full  of  the  glamour  and 
witchery  of  the  East,  which,  once  felt,  for  ever  calls  one 
to  come  again  and  leave  the  sunless  Northern  lands. 
This  dream  of  dolce  far  niente  only  comes  to  one,  how- 
ever, when  safe  away  from  low-lying,  mosquito-infected 
Banjermassin,  and  sitting  comfortably  on  the  deck  of 
the  steamer.  Then,  as  the  day  wears  on,  we  slip  away 
down  the  mighty  river,  the  palm-fringed  banks  glide 
past,  little  twinkling  lights  betray  the  fishing  huts  on 
either  side,  dark  canoes  shoot  out  and  are  swallowed 
up  again  in  the  twilight,  and  having  stopped  to  take 
up  a  pilot  (a  recent  arrangement  which  our  captain 


300  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

denounces  as  merely  an  imposition,  since  the  officers 
of  trading  vessels  know  the  delta  better  than  the 
pilots)  we  pass  through  narrow  channels,  take  some 
sudden  turns,  and  soon  are  in  the  open  sea  again. 

There  are  two  lines  of  Dutch  steamers  plying  every 
month  regularly  between  Singapore,  Banjermassin,  and 
Kotei,  the  second  going  also  to  Bolangan,  while  a  boat 
runs  three  times  monthly  between  Banjermassin  and 
Sourabaya. 

A  very  different  scene  is  presented  by  one  of  the  oil- 
towns  which  have  sprung  up  since  Messrs.  Samuels 
obtained  concessions  for  exploiting  petroleum  in  East 
Borneo.  There  are  important  wells  up  the  Kotei  river, 
but  the  oil  is  all  brought  for  chemical  treatment  to 
Balik  Pappan,  a  coast  town  lying  in  a  beautiful  and 
sheltered  bay. 

Four  years  ago  this  bay,  although  the  best  harbour  on 
the  coast,  was  unused.  The  jungle  came  down  to  the 
water's  edge — great  trees,  scrub,  rough  palms,  ferns  and 
all  the  rank  vegetation  of  a  primitive  forest.  The  bay 
teemed  with  fish  which  had  not  yet  learnt  to  fear  the 
fisher,  so  that  the  first  comers  could  catch  them  in  their 
hands.  Five  miles  inland  was  a  small  settlement  of 
Bugis,  who  collected  edible  nests  and  other  jungle  prod- 
uce. Stories  were  current  among  the  natives  all  along 
the  coast  of  oil  wells,  and  up  the  Kotei  river  there  was 
one  which  the  natives  said  had  been  burning  for  many 
years,  and  which  they  worshipped  as  a  god.  A  Dutch- 
man got  a  concession  to  work  the  oil,  but  for  six  years 
he  laboured  unsuccessfully  to  raise  sufficient  capital  in 
Holland,  and  then  sold  his  concession  for  about  ,£35,000 
to  the  English  firm,  who  also  pay  him  half  a  guilder  a 
tun,  so  that  he  now  gets  a  very  nice  little  income.  On 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS  301 

the  deserted  shore  at  Balik  Pappan  some  four  years  ago 
landed  an  English  manager  with  some  sixty  coolies,  half 
Chinese,  half  Malay.  Having  built  huts  for  temporary 
dwellings  they  began  the  work  of  clearing,  but  after 
three  days  the  Chinese  mutinied  and  were  only  reduced 
to  submission  by  their  fear  of  the  Malays,  who  are  war- 
like and  always  ready  with  their  weapons.  The  latter 
prevented  John  from  coming  to  the  shore  to  get  fish,  and 
the  lack  of  this  indispensable  article  of  diet  worked  won- 
ders. The  clearing  went  on,  boring  began,  and  the  oil 
came.  The  first  well  struck  is  stilt  yielding. 

Balik  Pappan  now  presents  a  busy  sight,  in  great  con- 
trast to  the  sleepy  Dutch  towns.  Numbers  of  round  red 
reservoirs  are  studded  along  a  platform,  toilfully  levelled 
in  the  sides  of  the  steep  bank  that  rises  almost  from  the 
water's  edge.  Enormous  sheds  of  corrugated  iron  are 
full  of  the  latest  machinery  for  distilling  the  oil.  There 
are  rows  of  giant  boilers,  with  roaring  fires  beneath  fed 
by  single  jets  of  flaming  oil.  The  ground  is  a  network 
of  pipes  carrying  the  oil  from  pump  to  tank,  from  tank 
to  distillery  and  from  distillery  to  reservoir,  whence  it 
is  conveyed  on  a  small  line  down  a  wharf  to  the  oil-boats 
which  are  waiting  to  take  it  away  to  all  parts  of  the 
East  and  even  to  Egypt. 

The  bungalows  of  the  European  officials  of  the  Com- 
pany are  reached  after  a  steep  climb  and  command  a 
pleasant  breeze  and  a  view  of  the  whole  bay.  About 
thirty  Europeans  live  here,  with  half  a  dozen  ladies  and 
as  many  children,  and  the  climate  is  considered  very 
healthy.  The  bungalows  are  neat  and  pretty,  and  there 
is  an  excellent  club-house  provided  with  two  billiard 
tables,  magazines,  books  and  a  piano.  There  is  also  a 
sort  of  general  mess  room,  a  large  open  building  with 


302  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

numerous  small  tables,  where  every  one  can  get  meals 
at  a  moderate  cost,  and  so  avoid  keeping  a  cook.  It  is 
a  sociable  and  pleasant  arrangement,  and  a  special 
boon  to  the  bachelor  community.  All  the  houses  are 
lighted  by  electricity  and  built  of  wood,  cut  by  a  saw- 
mill which  has  been  established,  and  beautifully  grained 
wood  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood,  which  is  used  for 
furniture.  Balik  Pappan  is  quite  gay  at  times  and  has 
tennis  parties  and  dances,  but  amusements  are  limited 
by  the  roadless  country,  and  there  are  no  horses  or  any 
draught  animals  in  the  place.  Food  is  rather  lacking 
in  variety,  as  only  fish,  fowls,  and  a  little  game  can  be 
got  locally.  There  is  no  church  or  school  at  present, 
the  Indian  Mohammedans,  locally  known  as  Sikhs,  of 
whom  there  are  a  small  number  engaged  by  the  Com- 
pany as  police,  being  the  only  people  who  have  a  place 
of  worship.  The  number  of  coolies  employed  is  some 
2000,  and  the  superior  workmen  are  Europeans  of  every 
nationality,  many  of  them  Armenians,  Galicians,  Rus- 
sians, Greeks,  Italians,  and  others. 

The  oil  is  now  coming  in  great  quantities,  and  even 
more  is  obtained  at  Sanger-Sanger,  the  other  conces- 
sion on  the  Kotei  river.  This  most  important  industry 
is  already  making  itself  felt  in  the  East,  and  will  become 
of  still  more  importance,  if  the  dearness  and  scarcity  of 
coal  induces  merchant  ships  to  employ  liquid  fuel.  Coal 
is  said  to  be  found  extensively  in  the  neighbourhood  and 
also  on  the  river  banks,  but  at  present  it  is  almost  un- 
exploited  and  its  possible  value  quite  put  in  the  shade 
by  the  abundant  find  of  oil.  The  Dutch  authorities 
are  not  well  pleased  that  this  valuable  asset  should  be 
in  the  hands  of  a  British  Company,  and  put  every  pos- 
sible obstruction  in  the  way.  All  ships  entering  the 


OIL  WELLS.    BALIK    PAPPAN 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS  303 

bay  of  Balik  Pappan  must  employ  a  pilot,  and  next  year 
it  is  intended  to  establish  a  customs'  house  in  the  town. 

The  writer  cannot  end  his  description  without  record- 
ing the  beauty  of  his  last  view  of  the  oil-town,  nestling 
in  the  lovely  bay  and  backed  by  forest-covered  hills. 
As  the  darkness  settled  down  a  thousand  jets  of  oil 
were  lighted  along  the  water's  edge  and  away  into  the 
woods  where  the  wells  are  giving  up  their  treasure. 
It  was  the  most  effective  illumination  imaginable,  and 
the  myriad  yellow  flaring  lights  reflected  in  the  dark 
bay  and  throwing  a  lurid  glare  over  the  forest  in  the 
background  made  a  never-to-be-forgotten  picture. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  diamonds  of 
South  Borneo  and  the  connection  of  the  Rothschilds 
with  their  output.  The  writer  has  recently  seen  a  state- 
ment in  a  text-book  to  the  effect  that  the  South  Borneo 
diamond  is  superior  to  the  African  in  colour  and  brill- 
iancy, but  can  only  repeat  that  the  many  specimens 
seen,  some  of  considerable  size,  which  had  probably  suf- 
fered from  bad  cutting,  seemed  yellow  and  rather  lack- 
ing in  fire. 

Although  it  is  impossible  in  the  scope  of  this  book 
to  give  a  really  complete  idea  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  one 
is  inclined  to  linger  over  these  "external  possessions," 
because  some  account  of  them  is  necessary  to  convey  a 
true  idea  of  the  status  of  Holland  in  the  East.  A 
description  of  Java  and  Sumatra  alone  would  be  mis- 
leading. 

An  island  worthy  of  mention,  on  account  of  its  pecul- 
iar position  as  the  last  point  in  the  chain  in  which  the 
Asiatic  flora  and  fauna  are  found,  is  Bali,  to  which  added 
interest  is  given  by  the  fact  that  here  the  savant  and 
philologist  Van  der  Tunk  took  up  his  abode  when 


304  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

studying  the  Malay  language.  Boeleling,  the  chief 
town,  lies  flat  on  the  shore  and  has  a  harbour  and  the 
usual  godowns,  club,  and  offices,  all  rather  forlorn  and 
deserted.  Copra,  extracted  from  the  dried  fibre  of  the 
cocoa-nut,  is  largely  exported,  and  its  oily  smell  hangs 
over  the  place.  The  Dutch  have  made  a  settlement  in 
the  hills,  where  climate  and  scenery  are  far  more  agreeable. 
Much  of  the  country  is  highly  cultivated,  coffee  being 
the  chief  product ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  island  has 
nothing  but  poorly  built  villages,  with  huts  half  mud, 
and  little  is  done  in  the  way  of  missionary  or  educational 
work.  Nevertheless  Bali  was  at  one  time  the  centre  of 
a  Hindoo  civilisation  almost  equal  to  that  of  Java,  and 
possesses  two  written  languages  and  a  written  code  of 
laws.  The  Hindoo  religion  is  still  practised  and  caste  dis- 
tinctions are  maintained,  but  the  people  are  degenerate. 
The  island  of  Lombok,  which  adjoins  Bali,  is  the  first 
in  which  the  Australian  flora  and  fauna  begin.  Until 
quite  recently  both  Bali  and  Lombok  were  left  almost 
entirely  to  their  own  devices,  the  Rajah  of  the  latter 
being  of  the  Balinese  race  and  exercising  a  tyrannous 
power  over  the  Sassaks  who  inhabit  Lombok.  The 
rising,  and  massacre. of  the  Dutch,  which  took  place  in 
Lombok  in  1894,  have,  however,  led  to  considerable 
alterations,  and  the  Dutch  have  strengthened  their 
position  in  that  island.  The  genesis  of  this  affair  was 
the  oppression  of  the  Rajah  already  mentioned.  The 
Dutch,  though  nominally  owning  the  island,  kept  no 
officials  there,  but  being  appealed  to  by  the  Sassaks, 
landed  a  small  force,  which  was  received  in  a  friendly 
way  by  the  Rajah,  who  afterwards  surprised  and  killed 
many.  Reprisals  of  course  followed,  and  a  full  staff 
of  officials  is  now  kept  on  the  island,  while  garrisons 


THE   EXTERNAL  POSSESSIONS  305 

are  maintained  at  the  port  of  Ampenan  and  at  Mataram, 
the  ancient  capital,  a  little  distance  inland.  Neverthe- 
less internal  disputes  are  constant  among  the  interior 
tribes,  and  there  is  great  destitution  owing  to  the  inter- 
ruption of  agriculture.  In  both  Bali  and  Lombok  are 
interesting  Hindoo  ruins,  and  in  the  latter  are  still  to 
be  seen  the  ancient  palace  and  prisons  of  one  of  the 
Hindoo  Rajahs  bombarded  by  the  Dutch  in  their  expedi- 
tion. As  a  rule  the  visitor  to  Dutch  colonial  towns  is 
struck  with  the  excellence  of  the  roads  which  connect 
all  places  of  importance  with  each  other.  These  are 
usually  shaded  by  fine  trees,  but,  as  one  goes  further 
east  towards  Australia,  the  islands  assume  a  more  barren 
aspect,  and  Timor  at  the  furthest  extremity  of  the  chain 
is  bare  and  mountainous.  Though  a  certain  amount  of 
trade  is  maintained  with  all  these  islands  and  with  the 
Molucca  group,  a  Dutch  contrbleur  being  resident  at 
many  of  them,  practically  nothing  is  done  in  the  way 
of  civilisation  or  of  administering  the  country. 

A  striking  feature  of  these  islands  is  the  belt  of  vol- 
canoes which  runs  through  them ;  sometimes  providing 
fertile  soil,  many  of  these  are  in  constant  eruption  and 
have  frequently  destroyed  thousands  of  inhabitants.  The 
most  impressive  of  these  is  perhaps  Gunong  Api,  on  the 
island  of  Banda  in  the  Moluccas,  the  home  of  the  nut- 
meg. Gunong  Api  seems  to  rise  almost  sheer  from  the 
water's  edge,  the  little  white  town  of  Banda  Neira  perched 
on  a  green  terraced  island  showing  up  in  strong  relief  in 
the  foreground.  The  place  is  crowned  with  a  mediaeval 
fortress,  and  many  small  forts,  now  deserted,  are  scat- 
tered about,  remnants  of  the  days  when  the  old  East 
India  Company  first  established  itself  in  the  coveted 
Spice  Islands.  A  nutmeg  orchard  is  like  nothing  save 


3o6  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

the  sacred  groves  of  classic  writers,  so  rich  and  luxuri- 
ant, yet  without  all  wildness,  is  its  growth ;  with  dense, 
shining,  dark-green  foliage  and  pendant  fruit  of  dull  yel- 
low, with  here  and  there  the  deep  red  of  the  mace  seen 
in  the  heart  of  the  split  fruit.  Above  these  orchards 
spreads  a  cover  formed  by  the  foliage  of  enormous 
canary  trees,  beautiful  giants  such  as  are  seen  in  the 
gardens  of  Buitenzorg,  their  column-like  trunks  wreathed 
in  trails  of  creeping  plants  and  ferns.  An  air  of  melan- 
choly hangs  over  Banda,  however,  for  the  greed  of  man 
turned  her  natural  riches  to  a  curse.  Koen,  one  of  the 
first  Governors-General  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  in  his 
efforts  to  obtain  the  monopoly  of  the  nutmeg  trade,  almost 
exterminated  the  natives  of  this  once  busy  island.  Ter- 
nate,  another  of  the  Spice  Islands,  and  once  a  busy  mar- 
ket to  which  came  traders  from  every  part  of  the  world, 
is  the  seat  of  a  Resident,  and  also  of  a  Sultan  who 
holds  sway  over  a  large  portion  of  the  island.  It  was 
through  a  treaty  with  this  potentate  that  the  Dutch  got 
possession  of  Western  New  Guinea,  over  which  he  was 
suzerain.  Like  other  Dutch  Indian  ports,  Ternate  is  a 
place  of  sleep,  decay,  and  neglect.  Nutmegs  and  coffee 
are  cultivated,  but  the  natives  are  indolent,  and  coolies 
have  to  be  imported  from  neighbouring  islands.  In  all 
these  islands  there  is  a  large  number  of  half-castes,  of 
Portuguese  as  well  as  Dutch  descent.  Amboina  affords 
the  most  notable  instance  of  this,  especially  in  the 
capital  where  the  majority  are  Christianised  and  go  to 
church,  the  men  clad  in  hideous  black  cloth  coats  and 
trousers,  the  women  in  full  black  skirts,  white  kibaya  or 
linen  jackets,  and  with  a  handkerchief  hanging  in  the 
left  hand.  The  Amboinese  are  excitable,  litigious,  and 
despite  their  Christianity  given  to  drink,  which  they  dis- 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS  307 

til  from  the  sugar  palm,  and  are  said  to  be  otherwise 
very  easy  in  their  morals.  A  Dutch  traveller  writing  a 
description  of  the  beautiful  Molucca  islands,  and  grow- 
ing weary  of  reiterating  that  there  is  a  general  air  of 
stagnation  and  dead-aliveness  about  them  all,  tries  to 
infuse  a  little  life  into  his  description  of  the  harbour  of 
Amboina,  and  records  with  unconscious  sarcasm  that 
"  when  the  steamer  arrives  the  pier  of  the  Packet  Com- 
pany presents  a  lively  appearance.  A  great  many  natives 
stand  there,  apparently  to  while  away  the  time."  Whil- 
ing  away  the  time  is  the  principal  occupation  of  both 
Europeans  and  natives  in  the  Moluccas  to-day. 

The  most  important  of  the  external  possessions  is  the 
large  and  beautiful' island  of  Sumatra,  whose  southern 
littoral  was  known  to  sailors  for  centuries  as  the  Pepper 
Coast.  The  interior  boasts  districts  as  fertile  and  highly 
cultivated  as  any  in  Java.  Sumatra  differs  from  all  other 
Dutch  East  Indies  in  having  still  the  remnants  of  a 
pre-Malay  race,  the  descendants  of  a  Caucasian  stock. 
These  are  known  as  Battaks,  and  in  character,  custom, 
and  appearance  seem  to  resemble  strongly  the  Borneo 
Dyaks  and  the  so-called  Indonesian  tribes  of  the  Philip- 
pines. As  Sumatra  is  so  near  to  the  Asian  continent, 
divided  from  the  Malay  peninsula  by  only  a  narrow 
strait,  it  seems  remarkable  that  to  this  day  it  should 
remain  not  only  partially  unconquered,  but  also  partially 
unexplored.  The  explanation  is  no  doubt  found  partly 
in  the  presence  of  a  race,  natually  robust  and  indepen- 
dent, rendered  fierce  and  warlike  by  long  struggles  to 
repel  the  invader.  The  cannibalistic  and  head-hunting 
customs  of  these  people  struck  terror  into  the  heart 
of  early  traders,  and  the  Hindoos  who  covered  Java 
with  their  temples  and  overspread  it  with  their  influ- 


3o8 


THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 


BATTAK    WOMAN 


ence,  seem  to  have  hardly  penetrated  the  island  nearest 
to  their  coasts. 

The  history  of  early  foreign   relations  with  Sumatra 
has  been  already  told,  and    it  only  remains  to   give  a 

brief  description  of  the  country  and 
people.  The  inland  scenery,  as 
judged  from  photographs  and  de- 
scriptions (for  travelling  is  difficult 
and  only  isolated  parts  can  be  safely 
visited  by  the  ordinary  traveller), 
compares  favourably  with  that  of 
any  other  part  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  The  fairy-like  beauty  of 
the  smaller  islands,  broken  and 
scattered  as  they  are  in  the  bluest 

of  waters,  covered  with  foliage  and  crowned  with  the 
jagged  grey  and  purple  peaks  of  volcanoes;  the  smiling, 
peaceful  loveliness  of  Java  —  these  are  varied  in  Su- 
matra by  a  wilder,  more  rugged  type  of  scenery,  and 
also  by  occasional  stretches  of  dull  flat  swamp  or  thick 
impenetrable  jungle. 

The  northern  part  of  Sumatra  is  a  mountainous  coun- 
try, and  is  inhabited  by  a  race  who  have  defended  them- 
selves against  the  Dutch  for  no  less  than 
thirty  years.     This  part  of  the   island 
was  probably  the  first  visited  by  Hindoos 
and   Arabs,  and    it   is    likely   that   the 
Achinese  owe  some  of  their  character- 
istics and  more  particularly  their  fight- 
ing   instinct    to    a    strong    admixture 
of   foreign   and   especially   Arab  blood. 
They    were,    as  has    already   been    noted    in    the    his- 
torical sketch,  a  people  of  much  wealth  and  influence 


BATTAK   WOMAN 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS  309 

in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  and 
English  ambassadors  were  sent  to  the  court  of  the 
monarch  of  Achin  who  ruled  over  more  than  half 
of  Sumatra.  They  are  to-day  not  only  restricted  in 
territory  but  politically  broken  up,  their  system  of 
government  being  communal,  the  districts  gathered 
into  three  provinces  and  the  whole  under  a  sultan. 
For  seven  hundred  years  the  people  have  been  Moham- 
medans, and  the  mixture  of  Malay  and  Arab  blood 
has  made  them  excellent  sailors  and  shipwrights,  while 
as  pirates  they  were  the  terror  of  the  Malacca  straits. 
We  are  so  accustomed  to  think  of  piracy  as  part 
of  an  age  long  past,  and  relegate  it  to  the  realm  of 
stories  for  boys,  that  it  is  strange  to  hear  such  a  descrip- 
tion as  that  given  by  a  gentleman  who,  in  his  own 
yacht  lying  off  Singapore  a  few  years  ago,  saw  a 
boat  manned  by  Achinese  overhaul  and  attack  two 
fishermen,  murder  one  and  make  off  with  the  nets 
and  fish  !  The  military  organisation  of  the  Achinese  is 
like  that  of  the  Cossacks :  every  man  is  born  to  be  a 
soldier,  and  every  village  furnishes  its  complement  of 
fighting  men.  This,  added  to  the  difficulties  of  the  coun- 
try, makes  the  Dutch  task  no  easy  one.  They  have  es- 
tablished themselves  on  Achinese  territory  at  Kota  Raja, 
connected  by  three  miles  of  railway  with  the  coast,  but 
although  the  town  is  well  built  it  is  most  uncomfortable 
to  Europeans,  for  it  is  impossible  to  venture  outside 
without  being  reminded  forcibly  of  the  precariousness  of 
the  position.  The  windows  of  the  railway  carriages  are 
of  steel  plates,  sentinels  keep  watch  everywhere  on  high 
towers,  and  the  place  is  surrounded  with  trenches  and 
bristling  with  guns. 

Leaving  the  Achinese  country  and  coming  south,  we 


3io  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

find,  situated  nearly  half-way  between  the  east  and  west 
coasts,  the  beautiful  large  inland  lake  Tobah,  with  an 
area  of  500  square  miles.  This  wonderful  inland  sea, 
surrounded  by  thickly  wooded  mountains  of  great  height, 
is  the  centre  of  the  Battak  country,  and  regarded  by  this 
race  as  their  home.  Although  believed  by  ethnologists 
to  be  of  the  same  race  as  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  they 
seem  to  have  acquired  a  greater  degree  of  civilisation, 
which  they  probably  owe  to  Hindoo  influence.  It  is 
also  considered  likely  that  they  mixed  considerably  with 
the  Hindoos,  a  supposition  which  accounts  for  certain 
peculiarities  not  found  in  the  Bornean  Dyak.  For  in- 
stance, in  colour  they  are  said  to  be  darker  than  the 
average  Malay,  while  the  Dyak  is  lighter,  and  they  have 
more  than  one  form  of  writing,  while  the  Dyaks  have 
none.  The  Sumatran  race,  moreover,  constructs  houses 
of  comparatively  elaborate  architecture,  ornamented  with 
carving,  and  practise  skilled  agriculture,  while  the  Bor- 
neans  merely  build  huts  high  up  in  the  trees  from  fear 
of  attack,  and  subsist  by  sowing  a  little  rice  or  sago, 
gathering  jungle  produce  and  shooting  birds.  It  is  pos- 
sible also  that  the  traditions  of  an  earlier  Caucasian  civili- 
sation linger  among  the  Battaks,  for  it  has  been  noted 
that  the  Caucasian  wave,  which  peopled  the  Polynesian 
isles,  took  with  it  the  arts  already  mentioned  of  build- 
ing and  carving  houses,  as  witness  the  dwellings  of  the 
Maoris.  The  Battaks  and  Dyaks  have  two  strong  traits 
in  common  —  head-hunting  and  cannibalism  —  and  it  is 
a  curious  fact  that  these  two  horrible  customs  seem  to 
be  invariable  with  Pacific  races  of  Caucasian  or  pre- 
Malay  stock,  but  are  not  characteristic  of  Mongols  or 
Malays.  The  Battaks,  like  the  Dyaks,  are  pagans,  and 
seem  almost  impervious  to  conversion  either  to  Chris- 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS  311 

tianity  or  Islam.  The  latter  will  probably,  however, 
make  its  way  slowly  among  them,  as  they  are  much 
intermixed  on  their  frontiers  with  the  Malays.  They 
practise  weaving,  using  the  rudest  form  of  loom,  some- 
times held  in  place  by  the  feet  as  with  the  pagan  tribes 
of  Formosa,  and  they  make  jewellery  and  krisses,  often 
of  fine  workmanship.  The  head-dress  worn  by  the 
women  of  some  of  the  tribes  is  almost  their  only  pecul- 
iarity in  that  line,  and  is  very  strange.  The  handker- 
chief is  folded  to  form  a  sort  of  poke-bonnet,  having  a 
wire  or  stick  to  raise  it  from  the  head,  and  is  kept  in 
place  by  two  spiral  coils  of  silver  wire  on  either  side  of 
the  head. 

The  Battaks  are  gradually  coming  under  Dutch  in- 
fluence, and  some  of  the  tribes  are  civilised,  but  in  the 


IN   A   BATTAK   VILLAGE 


hill  country  are  wild  tribes  of  whom  scarcely  any- 
thing is  known.  To  the  east  of  these,  facing  Malacca, 
is  the  country  of  the  Siaks,  a  Malay  race  who  inhabit 
the  low,  swampy,  unhealthy  district  on  the  coast.  So 


3i2  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

great  is  the  amount  of  silt  carried  down  to  the  sea 
by  the  short,  swift  rivers  that  the  land  is  seriously  en- 
croaching upon  the  straits  of  Malacca. 

South  of  the  Battaks  is  the  beautiful  mountain  dis- 
trict of  Menangkabo,  believed  by  many  of  the  Malays 
to  be  the  actual  cradle  of  their  race.  This  supposition, 
though  plausible,  is  warmly  contested  by  Crawfurd,  one 
of  the  greatest  authorities  on  everything  connected  with 
the  Malays.  He  believes  Menangkabo  to  have  been 
originally  a  Javanese  settlement,  and  educes  the  fact 
that  the  names  of  places,  mountains,  and  so  forth  are  fre- 
quently Javanese,  and  that  an  ancient  monument  was 
found  with  writing  in  the  old  Javanese  character.  The 
widespread  Malay  tradition,  however,  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, and  it  seems  possible  that  the  Javanese  may  have 
returned  after  centuries  of  development  and  then  con- 
quered and  settled  the  country  where  their  ancestors 
first  took  root.  To  the  energetic  Stamford  Raffles,  then 
Governor  of  the  British  settlement  at  Benkulen,  much 
further  south,  we  owe  the  first  real  account  of  this 
country,  which  he  describes  as  cultivated  like  Java  in 
terraces  to  the  mountain  tops,  and  comparing  favourably 
with  that  island  in  point  of  beauty  and  fertility.  The 
population  is  denser  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  island, 
the  people  being  Mohammedans  from  time  immemorial, 
and  ruled  by  chiefs  of  districts  and  villages  under  a  sul- 
tan, as  is  usual  in  all  Malay  countries.  Their  language 
is  singularly  pure  and  free  from  foreign  words,  and  this 
peculiarity  is  preserved  by  them  in  the  colonies  which 
they  have  established  on  the  coasts  both  of  the  Battak 
and  Achin  lands.  A  curious  fact  in  the  history  of 
Menangkabo  was  the  rise,  in  the  year  1807,  of  a  religious 
sect  professing  a  reformed  Mohammedanism,  which  was 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS  313 

first  promulgated  by  three  pilgrims  who  had  just  returned 
from  Mecca.  They  were  called  Padris  (an  evident  cor- 
ruption of  the  Portuguese  word),  or  Rinchis  (from  Korin- 
chi,  the  district  from  which  they  came).  They  preached 
a  strict  doctrine  which  deprived  its  votaries  of  the  use  of 
opium,  tobacco,  and  betel-nut  —  the  three  great  joys  and 
solaces  of  the  Malay  in  every  country  —  ordered  that 
white  clothes  only  should  be  worn  by  both  sexes,  and  pre- 
served a  strict  code  of  feminine  morals  —  including  the 
wearing  of  a  veil  —  which  must  have  been  equally  re- 
pugnant to  the  warm-blooded,  easy-going  Malays.  The 
reformers  were  for  a  time  so  successful  that  they  took  to 
temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  conquest,  and  became  mas- 
ters of  a  large  part  of  the  interior  of  Sumatra,  being  only 
subdued  by  the  Dutch  after  a  three  years  war.  This  puri- 
tanical sect  had  become  very  unpopular,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring tribes  were  glad  to  enlist  the  aid  of  the  Dutch 
against  them,  while  their  own  followers  soon  relapsed 
from  the  strict  rules  to  the  more  easy  and  agreeable 
religion  to  which  they  were  accustomed. 

On  the  west  coast,  parallel  with  Menangkabo,  is 
Padang,  the  name  applying  both  to  the  district,  which 
includes  a  fertile  plateau  used  for  coffee  cultivation,  and 
the  town,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Suma- 
tra. Merchants  of  many  nations  are  found  there,  and  the 
town  is  picturesquely  situated,  and  has  wide,  shady  roads 
leading  to  the  plateau,  and  a  railway  line  connecting  it 
with  the  Dutch  settlement  and  residence  of  the  Gov- 
ernor at  Fort  de  Kock.  South  of  Menangkabo  and 
Padang  is  the  country  of  the  Korinchi,  a  semi-civilised 
Malay  people  who  possess  an  alphabet  of  their  own, 
seemingly  one  of  the  oldest  and  purest  of  Malay 
alphabets. 


3M  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

The  southern  part  of  Sumatra  bears  signs  of  consid- 
erable Javanese  immigration.  The  larger  part  of  it  is 
known  as  Palembang,  a  district  occupying  the  centre 
and  south,  while  on  the  east  and  west  are  respectively  the 
countries  of  the  Jambi,  another  Malay  race  of  consider- 
able purity,  and  Benkulen,  on  whose  coast  is  situated  the 
town  of  that  name  which  was  held  by  the  English  for 
140  years  as  a  trading  station  and  finally  exchanged 
for  Malacca.  The  most  southerly  point  of  Sumatra  is 
occupied  by  a  people  known  as  the  Lampongs,  who 
claim  to  be  pure  Malays,  of  Menangkabo  descent,  but 
seemingly  much  modified  by  Javanese  immigration. 
They  have  also  a  distinct  written  character,  and  display 
other  peculiarities.  Crawfurd  considers  their  language 
to  contain  a  large  proportion  of  an  original  tongue, 
neither  Malay  nor  Javanese,  and  other  travellers  remark 
on  a  characteristic  institution  common  in  their  villages 
—  that  of  having  a  sort  of  club-house,  or  public  room, 
where  visitors  are  entertained  and  every  one  can  meet  to 
discuss  topics  of  interest.  This  institution  is,  however, 
found  among  many  primitive  nations,  and  more  particu- 
larly with  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea  and  other  Pacific 
isles. 

Palembang  is  the  most  picturesque  and  interesting 
of  all  Sumatran  towns,  and  is  besides  the  centre  of  a 
large  and  increasing  trade.  No  one  who  has  not  visited 
one  of  these  Malayan  river  towns  can  form  any  idea 
of  their  quaint  and  picturesque  appearance.  The  wide, 
deep  river  is  three  quarters  of  a  mile  across  at  Palembang, 
and  on  either  side  for  six  miles  the  wooden  houses  with 
their  curious  pointed  roofs  are  built  on  piles  over  the 
water.  Every  house  has  a  fleet  of  little  praus  and 
canoes  moored  in  front  of  it,  and  many  are  built  on 


THE   EXTERNAL   POSSESSIONS  315 

rafts,  and  can  be  moved  at  will.  The  river  population, 
living  entirely  in  boats,  is  almost  like  that  of  Canton, 
and  the  whole  face  of  the  river  is  covered  with  craft 
making  their  way  to  and  fro,  including  vessels  of  large 
size  and  draught,  which  move  along  in  stately  fashion 
like  giants  among  a  swarm  of  pigmies. 


RIVER   SCENE 


This  is  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  Dutch  influence. 
Others  are  Padang,  already  described ;  Benkulen,  where 
thanks  to  the  British  the  surrounding  country  is  thor- 
oughly dominated  by  the  Europeans,  but  the  town  itself 
decadent  and  the  trade  inconsiderable ;  and  Dilli,  a 
settlement  on  the  east  coast  facing  Penang,  from  which 
there  is  cable  communication.  The  island  is  nominally 
divided  into  two  Governments,  five  Residencies,  and  one 
Assistant  Residency,  but  as  two  of  the  Residents  and 
the  Assistant  are  located  on  the  adjacent  islands  of 
Rhio,  Banka,  and  Blitong,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  huge 
island  has  little  governmental  control.  Of  these  Achin 
(about  the  size  of  Ireland)  is  one  only  in  name,  while  the 


316  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

respective  Governments  of  the  east  and  west  coasts  are 
practically  two  small  radii,  with  Padang  and  Dilli  as 
their  centres.  At  Benkulen  and  Dilli  the  government 
is  carried  on  through  the  native  chiefs,  much  as  in  Java. 
There  is  a  resident  at  Lampong,  who  practically  only 
represents  the  majesty  of  Holland,  and  another  at  Palem- 
bang,  which  is  one  of  the  best-controlled  regions.  But  the 
interior  of  the  country  is  either  absolutely  independent 
and  unexplored  or,  as  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  nearer 
tribes,  owns  the  suzerainty  of  Holland  but  permits  no 
governmental  interference,  or,  as  in  Achin,  is  in  a  state 

of  revolt.  The  wildness 
and  wide  differences  of  the 
various  tribes,  who  from 
time  immemorial  have 
been  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent of  each  other, 
added  to  the  difficulties 

MARKET  WOMEN,   BANJERMASSIN  ^^          ^          ^          g«»t 

spine      of       mountainous 

country  which  runs  from  north  to  south  of  the  island, 
have  made  the  conquest  of  Sumatra  extremely  difficult, 
and  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  it  can  ever  be  accomplished 
by  the  Dutch.  Meanwhile  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
country  is  for  the  most  part  undeveloped,  industries  are 
merely  local  and  consist  of  the  manufacture  of  native 
weapons  and  cloth,  and  the  only  really  paying  crops  are 
pepper,  found  on  the  west  and  south ;  coffee,  grown  in 
the  Padang  district  but  decreasing  in  quantity;  and 
tobacco,  a  flourishing  industry,  only  started  of  recent 
years  in  the  Dilli  district  but  proving  a  great  success. 
Chinese  labour  has  perforce  been  employed  on  the 
tobacco  plantations,  but  Chinese  merchants  are  not  per- 


31? 

mitted    to    invest    in    the    industry   and    are    generally 
discouraged. 

Altogether  the  External  Possessions  of  Holland  in  the 
East  present  a  spectacle  of  stagnation  and  obstruction  to 
progress  which  make  them  a  striking  contrast  to  such 
neighbouring  countries  as  the  Federated  Malay  States. 
Under  the  aegis  of  Britain  the  latter  have  been  raised 
to  a  high  pitch  of  prosperity  by  a  liberal  policy  which 
encourages  the  introduction  of  capital  and  labour  of 
every  description.  Of  the  colonial  policy  of  the  Dutch 
generally  something  must  be  said  later  on. 


A    ROAD    IN    THE  JAVANESE   HIGHLANDS 


CHAPTER  XII 

JAVA 

IT  is  difficult  in  the  scope  of  a  necessarily  brief 
chapter  to  convey  a  tenth  part  of  the  glowing  pictures 
impressed  on  the  mind  by  even  a  short  sojourn  in  this 
fairest  of  islands.  Japan  has  justly  earned  a  world-wide 
celebrity  for  its  dainty  prettiness  of  landscape,  natural 
features  being  enhanced  by  the  art  of  man  until  it  is 
impossible  to  say  where  Nature  ends  and  art  begins, 
and  it  is  with  Japan  that  Java  is  often  compared ;  but  to 
the  writer's  thinking  there  is  something  bolder,  richer, 
and  more  primitive  about  the  Dutch  island.  Japan  is  a 
country  of  delicate  tones,  despite  the  general  idea  to  the 
contrary.  Its  little  people  are  clad  in  soft  greys,  tender 
lavenders,  and  faded  blues;  only  the  children  and  the 

flowers  are  bright  with  kaleidoscopic  colours.     The  soft 

318 


JAVA  319 

grey-green  firs  clothe  the  blue-grey  hills,  and  the  red 
torii  make  quite  startling  notes  of  colour  in  the  neutral- 
tinted  background.  Japanese  in  their  native  art  —  not 
that  produced  for  Chicago  —  cling  to  soft  grey  and  black 
washes,  with  here  and  there  a  faint  dash  of  lemon-yellow 
or  vermilion ;  everywhere  there  is  the  same  delicate 
refined  taste  in  colour  which  comes  of  long  centuries  of 
artistic  education.  The  Chinese  are  bolder  in  design 
and  tone.  If  the  grey  and  lavender  dresses  of  the 
women  and  the  dainty  pink  and  white  of  cherry  blossom 
make  up  a  colour  scheme  typical  of  Japan  (with  always 
that  tiny  subtle  touch  of  pale  lemon-yellow  to  give  dis- 
tinction), then  gold  and  blue  are  the  colours  for  China  — 
blues  of  every  shade  from  the  rich  and  splendid  cobalt 
of  a  summer  sky  to  the  deep  purple-blue  of  a  pansy's 
petal,  —  and  the  scheme  is  completed  with  vivid  touches 
of  sealing-wax  red,  —  the  festal  colour. 

As  a  medium  between  these  two  comes  the  Malay, 
and  of  his  natural  taste  we  can  only  judge  in  countries 
like  Java  or  the  Peninsula,  where  he  has  been  left  to 
work  out  his  own  salvation  to  a  great  extent,  for,  unlike 
the  two  principal  members  of  the  Mongol  family  to 
which  he  belongs,  he  is  very  readily  seduced  from  his 
own  natural  bent  in  both  form  and  colour.  In  the 
Philippines,  for  instance,  the  modification  of  Spanish 
costume  adopted  by  both  women  and  men  has  resulted 
in  an  almost  total  lack  of  the  colour  sense ;  every  one  is 
clad  in  upper  garments  of  cream  or  saffron  and  lower 
ones  of  muddy-coloured  checks,  while  black  muslin  and 
silk  are  worn  for  church-going  by  the  women,  and  the 
men  are  clad  in  shapeless  suits  of  white  linen  or  black 
cloth.  But  in  Java  the  Malay  is  still  a  child  of  Nature,  and 
as  the  strange  new  scenes  in  ancient  towns,  crowded  mar- 


320  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

kets,  and  quaint  villages  grow  familiar,  one  begins  to  real- 
ise that  wonderful  harmony  between  the  people  and  their 
surroundings  which  only  comes  of  long  centuries  of 
residence  and  extreme  conservatism  as  to  garments. 
Fashion  does  not  dictate  colour  or  cut,  and  both  have 
assimilated  themselves  to  the  country  and  climate,  or 
rather  are  the  outcome  of  these.  The  colour-scheme 
of  Java  is  therefore  as  harmonious  as  that  of  Japan,  but 
instead  of  delicacy  and  daintiness  we  have  rich,  deep 
tones  —  brown  and  orange  with  flashes  of  vivid  emerald, 
deep  notes  of  sober  blue  and  touches  of  bright  crimson 
—  these  are  the  keynotes.  But  to  write  them  in  pen  and 
ink  is  an  injustice.  Words  cannot  convey  the  gamut  of 
hues  indicated  by  the  uninteresting  word  "  brown,"  nor 
the  soul-sufficing  harmony  of  a  scene  —  say  a  village 
market  under  the  soft  green  shade  of  some  giant  trees  — 
when  all  these  deep,  warm  tones  mingle  and  blend  and 
are  broken  with  shafts  of  golden  sunlight. 

To  carry  the  comparison  still  further.  Japan  fascinates 
with  the  quaintness  of  her  outlines.  Her  loveliest  scen- 
ery has  always  a  touch  of  the  fanciful  and  unexpected  — 
it  is  never  merely  pretty-pretty.  In  China  one  gets  Na- 
ture in  her  large  moods,  —  mountains,  huge  rivers,  wide 
plains,  —  but  wherever  man  is  in  evidence  he  forces  his 
presence  upon  us  by  something  grotesque  and  bizarre. 
The  firm  belief  of  the  Chinaman  in  the  spirits  of  earth 
and  water  —  dragons  and  other  strange  beasts  they  appear 
to  him  —  seems  to  have  stamped  the  country  with  a  weird 
sense  of  possession,  and  there  is  a  wild  impressiveness 
about  even  the  most  peaceful  landscape,  as,  for  instance, 
when  blood-red  poppies  dye  the  fields  for  miles  and  miles. 

Java,  on  the  contrary,  is  neither  fanciful  nor  grotesque. 
The  island,  as  has  been  said  in  hackneyed  phrase,  is  a  gar- 


JAVA  321 

den,  and  the  prevailing  impression  is  that  of  a  beneficent, 
bountiful  Nature  which  spreads  a  shining  sunny  land,  pours 
over  it  fairest  fruits  and  flowers,  and  fills  it  with  the  grate- 
ful sound  of  running  water.  The  whole  country  smiles. 
This  impression  is  heightened  by  the  evident  signs  of 
careful  cultivation.  No  one  who  has  not  wandered  in 
hopeless  jungle  or  gazed  for  days  over  flat  and  useless 
swamps  can  realise  the  keen  pleasure,  amounting  almost 
to  personal  triumph,  which  fills  the  heart  at  the  sight  of 
a  country,  naturally  rich,  made  still  more  fertile  by  the 
industry  of  man,  and  yielding  her  treasures  freely  at  his 
desire.  Japan  presents  in  some  parts  the  same  feature, 
but  here  the  Javanese  picture  is  on  a  larger  scale.  Steep 
mountains  are  utilised  for  crops  of  hill  padi,  while  the 
slopes  at  their  feet  are  cut  and  channelled  and  terraced 
until  they  resemble  giant  staircases,  and  each  step  is  green 
with  padi  or  reflects  on  its  watery  surface  the  purple 
mountain  above  or  the  fleecy  white  clouds.  The  fore- 
ground is  picturesquely  broken  by  the  banks  which  sepa- 
rate the  /tfdk'-fields  and  raise  them  to  different  levels  to 
provide  for  drainage,  and  by  groups  of  men,  women,  and 
children  at  work,  the  last-named  attired  in  the  brown 
garment  of  Nature,  while  their  parents  make  spots  of 
crimson  and  orange  which  are  reflected  wonderfully  in 
the  water  at  their  feet.  Often  they  are  up  to  their  knees 
in  mud  and  water,  transplanting  the  young  plants  or 
mending  the  banks.  Sometimes  the  water  has  been  run 
off  a  field  and  men  are  ploughing  with  a  team  of  grey 
oxen  —  the  plough  a  primitive  blade  of  iron  or  even  wood 
fastened  to  cross-bars  of  bamboo.  Everywhere  there  is 
water  —  lying  flat  and  blue  on  the  /^-fields,  trickling 
through  little  channels,  splashing  into  the  mountain 
stream  from  which  it  has  been  drawn  higher  up  and  made 


322  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

to  do  so  much  work.  Water,  brown  and  noisy,  hurtling 
in  a  stony  channel  and  foaming  round  rocks  as  the  moun- 
tain stream  rushes  on  its  way.  Water  in  a  thin  silver 
trickle,  gliding  along  a  rough  spout  made  of  a  hollow 
tree-trunk  across  a  ravine  and  falling  with  a  gleaming 
splash  into  the  fields  beyond. 

Everywhere  there  is  green.  The  tender  canary  yellow 
of  the  young  padi  as  it  thickens  in  the  water  is  bordered 
by  a  patch  of  vivid  emerald  —  the  colour  of  the  young 


IN    THE   PADI-FIELDS 


ear.  The  ripening  crop  varies  from  rich  golden  to  a 
fine  bronze  green,  and  green  palm-trees  break  the  line 
with  their  graceful  feathery  arms. 

Above  all  float  the  distant  blue  and  purple  hills, 
capped  and  shrouded  with  exquisite  transparent  clouds, 
floating,  changing,  thickening,  lifting ;  sometimes  so 
near,  and  then,  as  the  point  of  view  changes,  fading  into 
the  sky  and  lost  in  the  blue  and  white  of  that  heavenly 
background. 

In  the  early  morning  these  landscapes  of  mountain, 
stream,  woodland,  and  village  assume  a  fairylike  aspect. 


JAVA  323 

The  night's  rain  has  saturated  everything,  and  faint 
vapours  hang  still  upon  the  horizon.  The  colours  have 
a  delicate  transparency,  the  distance  is  luminous  with 
opalescent  lights.  The  whole  smiling  country  seems  set 
with  jewels  which  gleam  and  glisten  and  have  the  brill- 
iance without  the  hardness  of  precious  stones.  Through 
such  a  scene  runs  a  long  straight  road,  bordered  either 
side  with  a  grassy  bank  and  flanked  by  trees.  Along  this 
the  villagers  are  going  to  market,  and  their  busy  stream 
makes  the  road  gay  with  flashes  of  crimson  and  orange- 
tawny.  The  exquisite  colours  worn  by  the  peasantry  in 
the  Preanger  provinces  certainly  give  a  charm  which 
is  lacking  in  East  Java,  where,  owing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  indigo,  most  of  the  garments  are  dyed  blue. 
These  blues  remind  one  of  French  peasants,  and  have 
washed  into  lovely  shades.  But  the  ever-present  brown, 
orange,  red,  green,  and  crimson  with  which  the  Pre- 
anger Javanese  decks  himself  are  more  varied,  and  being 
of  washing  cotton,  often  home-made  and  dyed,  have  also 
become  beautiful  with  use  and  tone  with  the  landscape 
like  exquisite  tropical  flowers. 

To  this  land  of  light  and  colour  the  writer  would  fain 
transport  his  indulgent  reader,  and  to  see  the  Javanese 
at  home  take  him  for  a  drive  through  some  twenty 
miles  of  the  fairest  province  in  Java. 

The  hour  is  the  early  one  already  described,  when 
the  sun  hangs  low  and,  shooting  long,  pale  shafts  of 
light  across  the  scene,  gilds  the  delicate^^'-leaf,  wakes 
the  sheets  of  water  into  sparkling  light,  and  pierces  the 
dim  green  woods  which  surround  the  villages. 

Along  the  main  road  we  drive,  past  innumerable 
brown  huts  —  veritable  streets  of  these  which  form  the 
outskirts  of  the  town.  Already  the  people  are  up  and 


324  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

out  at  work  or  play.  The  grass  screens  which  cover  the 
open  fronts  of  the  humblest  huts  have  been  raised,  the 
bamboo  screens  put  aside,  and  in  the  open  space  or  out 
in  front,  with  a  rude  awning  perhaps,  is  arranged  a 
little  stall  set  out  with  a  few  poor  delicacies,  slabs  of 
white  rice  and  cocoanut  cake,  a  few  red  peppers  and 
a  little  fruit,  perhaps  only  some  packets  of  betel-nut 
in  green  leaf  cases  or  round  cakes  of  a  brown  sub- 
stance. Nearly  every  house  seems  to  boast  such  a 
stall,  and  at  all  the  corners  of  the  roads  we  find  others. 
If  ambitious  they  even  sell  drinks  —  a  thick  green  or 
a  bilious  yellow  mixture  being  equally  popular  —  set 
forth  in  glasses  in  most  inviting  rows.  The  country- 
folk as  they  come  to  market  must  pass  these  stalls,  and 
tired  and  hot  must  be  glad  to  refresh  themselves,  but 
the  enigma  is  how  so  many  shops  can  find  customers. 

We  are  driving  in  an  open  victoria  with  four  extremely 
small  ponies  fastened  together  by  a  good  deal  of  rope. 
Our  driver  has  a  smart  red  cotton  coat,  a  spotted  hand- 
kerchief twisted  round  his  head  and  tweaked  into  two 
jaunty  ends  behind,  the  whole  surmounted  by  a  shiny 
red-and-yellow  soup-plate  hat.  He  cracks  his  whip 
with  skill  and  continuously,  and  urges  his  ponies  to  a 
spasmodic  gallop  by  frequent  cries  of  "  Ir-r-r-re !  ir-r-r-re ! 
—  Yok ! "  In  this  he  is  aided  and  abetted  by  another 
gentleman  similarly  attired  who  hangs  on  to  a  seat 
behind  and  on  occasion  springs  off,  dashes  to  the  front 
and  slashes  vigorously  at  the  horses,  running  often  sev- 
eral hundred  yards  in  this  way.  The  groom  apparently 
has  no  difficulty  in  keeping  up  with  the  galloping 
horses,  for  he  drops  behind  and  springs  on  to  the  step 
without  any  slackening  of  the  pace. 

All  along  the  road  we  meet  streams  of  people  —  it 


JAVA  325 

seems  alive  with  them.  Most  are  carrying  burdens. 
The  men  have  long  bamboos  poised  on  their  heads,  or 
baskets  at  either  end  of  a  pole  filled  with  roofing  tiles, 
pottery,  or  perhaps  only  with  fruit.  Some  are  carrying 
large  screens  of  bamboo  —  the  sides  for  houses  —  others 
huge  rolls  of  matting  or  heavy  sacks.  The  women  are 
equally  laden,  and  their  burdens  are  often  obviously  more 
than  they  should  bear.  Sacks  of  rice  are  fastened  to  the 
back  by  the  scarf  or  slendang,  and  to  carry  them  the 
women  must  bend  nearly  double.  Quite  young  girls  may 
be  seen  so  laden,  and  tiny  children  are  playing  at  burden- 
bearing  with  a  few  pineapples  or  a  bundle  of  wood- 
shavings  tied  to  their  little  brown  backs  with  strips  of 
cloth.  Mothers  trudge  along  with  their  babies  slung  on 
their  hips,  a  bundle  fastened  behind  and  an  umbrella  in 
hand.  All  along  the  roadside  little  groups  are  resting; 
naked  brown  children  play  round  them,  sweating  coolies 
pass  by  at  a  jog  trot,  bending  at  every  step  under  heavy 
weights,  while  the  muscles  stand  out  on  their  lean 
shoulders  and  play  down  their  bronze  backs.  The 
elder  men  are  inclined  to  be  thin  and  meagre,  and  the 
women  grow  old  early  with  field-work  and  much  mother- 
hood, becoming  wrinkled  hags  or  at  the  best  coarse  and 
uncomely.  But  the  young  men  are  well-formed,  well- 
covered,  with  erect  head  and  free  carriage ;  not  tall  as  a 
rule  but  excellently  proportioned  with  broad  shoulders 
and  slender  hips.  The  young  girls  are  often  charming, 
with  oval  faces  and  big  pathetic  brown  eyes  under  thin 
straight  brows;  their  rather  protruding  lips,  not  yet 
exaggerated  and  marred  by  betel-chewing,  have  a  pout- 
ing look  which  heightens  their  somewhat  pleading 
expression.  When,  as  is  frequent,  a  smile  breaks  over 
the  face,  a  gleam  of  white  lights  up  the  brown,  and  we 


326  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 

regret  still  further  the  habit  which  in  later  life  makes 
a  smile  hideous  by  reason  of  reddened  gums  and  black- 
ened teeth. 

Many  of  the  natives  greet  us  as  we  pass  with  raised 
hats,  but  some  take  no  notice  beyond  a  stare  of  curiosity. 
Nowhere  do  we  meet  with  the  abject  cringing  which, 
we  were  told,  the  Dutch  have  enforced  as  a  sign  of  sub- 
mission from  their  conquered  vassals.  In  the  Preanger 
villages  the  people  sometimes  kneel  or  crouch  for  a  min- 
ute as  one  passes  by,  but  these  are  tokens  of  respect 
they  have  from  time  immemorial  been  accustomed  to 
show  to  their  own  chiefs.  Nor  is  the  custom  more  fulsome 
than  the  hand  raised  to  forelock  of  the  village  gaffer  at 
home,  or  the  curtsey  with  which  every  well-brought-up 
child  or  woman  used  to  greet  her  betters  in  rural  Eng- 
land until  very  few  years  ago.  A  good  deal  more  rever- 
ence is  doubtless  shown  to  the  official  Dutch  than  to 
obvious  visitors  like  ourselves,  but  this  is  natural  and 
not  undesirable.  Servants  often  kneel  to  receive  orders 
from  their  masters,  but  these  in  all  cases  are  Dutch  offi- 
cials. The  hotel  servants  do  not  kneel  to  us  —  even 
for  a  pourboire. 

We  are  driving  through  gleaming  /tfdk'-fields  on  a 
straight  road,  when  suddenly  it  turns,  and  we  plunge 
into  the  shade  of  a  plantation  of  bamboos  and  palms. 
This  is  a  village,  and  it  is  neatly  confined  in  a  fence  of 
plaited  bamboo.  The  road  runs  through  the  middle  of 
the  village,  and  is  edged  on  either  side  by  fences  in 
which  are  several  openings,  with  gateways  of  wood  or 
bamboo.  Each  of  these  is  numbered,  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  whole  village  is  under  careful  surveillance.  The 
houses  are  often  large  and  have  verandahs  in  front. 
Occasionally  some  European  furniture  is  to  be  seen,  but 


JAVA 


327 


as  a  rule  a  glimpse  into  the  interior  affords  a  view  of  a 
dark  room,  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  owner,  with  a  raised  platform  of  bamboo  at  the  back 
which  is  the  sleeping  place  of  the  family.  Perhaps,  if 
a  large  house,  there  is  a  table,  covered  with  utensils  and 
food  and  an  open  space  in  front  either  occupied  by 
women  and  children  squatting  on  mats  or  filled  up  with 


WOMAN    WEAVING 


a  primitive  stall.  Perhaps  a  rough  loom  is  fastened  to 
one  side,  and  a  woman  sits  pushing  her  clumsy  shuttle 
in  and  out  of  the  strands,  which  are  fastened  to  a  bam- 
boo rod  and  kept  in  place  by  her  feet.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  village  street  a  vision  of  orange  cloths  hang- 
ing out  on  lines  apprises  us  that  from  the  loom  to  the 
dyeing  vat  is  not  a  far  step.  If  the  cloth  is  to  be  pat- 
terned it  is  dyed  or  bleached,  and  then  the  ground-work 
is  waxed  and  the  cloth  redipped. 


328  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Little  intimate  domestic  scenes  greet  us  on  every  side 
as  we  drive  through  these  brown  villages,  with  their 
bamboo  huts  and  brown  thatched  roofs.  This  is  early 
morning,  and  the  people  are  busy,  brushing  out  their 
tidy  compounds,  arranging  their  simple  stores  of  food,  or 
washing  their  clothes.  When  we  come  back  in  the  late 
afternoon,  we  shall  see  them  resting  after  the  day's  toil. 
The  workers  have  then  come  in  from  the  fields,  or  back 
from  market.  The  men  squat  on  their  haunches  in  circles 
and  smoke  in  companionable  silence.  The  women  lie 
on  their  mats  with  their  babies  sprawling  around  them, 
or  sit  in  groups  discussing  eagerly  and  with  much  laugh- 
ter the  village  gossip.  The  girls  and  boys  are  splashing 
in  the  nearest  stream.  All  wear  an  air  of  peace  and 
cheerfulness. 

We  have  lingered  long  enough  on  wayside  scenes,  but 
it  is  impossible  to  pass  by  the  kaleidoscope  of  native 
life  that  unrolls  its  brilliant  colours  as  we  drive  through 
the  sunny  roads  and  shady  villages.  We  stop  to  change 
horses  in  the  middle  of  a  village  where  a  large  market 
is  going  on,  and  here  a  characteristic  scene  is  presented. 
The  booths  are  lightly  roofed  and  have  the  appearance 
of  being  planted  down  in  the  middle  of  a  wood,  so 
thickly  grow  the  trees  among  them.  Brilliant  coloured 
cottons  are  hung  up  for  sale,  fruit  in  glowing  piles,  here 
and  there  a  shale  of  glistening  fish,  groups  of  cut  and 
trimmed  bamboos,  pottery-ware  —  every  article  of  native 
daily  use  or  feast-day  luxury.  Around  and  behind  the 
stalls  are  busy  clusters  of  people  in  garments  of  every 
conceivable  colour,  all  faded  and  washed  until  they  blend 
and  mingle,  while  under  the  shady  roofs  are  deep  patches 
of  rich  brown  and  blue.  A  great  deal  of  talk  is  going 
on,  the  road  is  lined  with  cheerful  squatting  men  and 


JAVA  329 

women  —  every  available  space  not  covered  by  stalls  or 
adults  is  filled  with  naked  brown  babies  and  innumer- 
able fowls.  Large  wicker  cages  of  the  feathered  bipeds 
are  exposed  for  sale,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  no  one 
seems  to  be  doing  very  much  buying.  Little  carts,  like 
tiny  Noah's-arks  on  wheels,  stand  in  a  row  round  the 
outskirts  of  the  market,  and  shaggy  ponies  graze  hard 
by.  Many  are  the  bullock  carts,  drawn  by  animals 
smaller  and  less  clumsy  than  the  ordinary  buffalo,  with 
pretty  heads  and  large  patient  eyes.  It  is  a  scene  at 
once  lively  and  peaceful. 

There  are  many  other  beautiful  drives,  and  the  writer 
would  be  only  too  happy  to  conduct  his  reader,  but  time 
presses,  and  we  have  yet  to  get  a  glimpse  of  an  old  Ja- 
vanese town.  We  might  visit  Boro-Bodor,  for  instance, 
that  vast  temple  crowning  the  summit  of  a  hill  and  shaped 
like  a  terraced  pyramid,  with  tier  on  tier  of  walls 
carved  in  bas-relief,  and  a  perfect  army  of  Buddhas 
scattered  everywhere.  Nothing  stranger  can  be  im- 
agined by  one  who  knows  his  India  well,  and  whose 
memories  of  youth  are  inextricably  interwoven  with  the 
scenes  and  shapes  of  that  distant  land,  than  to  come 
suddenly,  in  the  midst  of  this  Malay  country,  —  this  land 
of  short  square  figures,  broad  faces,  and  simple  primi- 
tive lines,  —  face  to  face  with  another  world  in  stone;  a 
well-remembered  world  of  lithe,  slim,  hook-nosed,  fierce- 
moustachioed  men,  whose  eyes  flashed  under  snowy  tur- 
bans, who  carried  broad  tulwars,  whose  thin  draperies 
clung  round  their  sveldt  figures,  who  rode  on  elephants, 
hunted  tigers,  and  worshipped  in  the  elaborate  temples 
of  Buddha.  Here,  in  this  land  so  far  from  their  home, 
the  ancient  Hindoos  have  left  an  undying  record  of  what 
manner  of  men  they  were  —  the  counterpart  of  those  to 


330  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

be  seen  to-day  on  the  eastern  coast  of  India.  They  have 
carved  for  us  their  ships,  with  great  pot-bellied  sides, 
heavy  timbering,  and  a  mass  of  rigging.  Again  we  see 
them  sitting  at  ease,  while  dancing-girls  delight  them, 
the  dancing  figure  itself  a  marvel  of  art  in  the  movement 
conveyed  by  simple  lines  and  scanty  drapery.  There 
are  no  less  than  1504  bas-reliefs  around  the  temple  and 
441  images  of  Buddha,  many  of  gigantic  size.  Though 
the  carvings  are  supposed  to  represent  merely  the  life 
and  apotheosis  of  Buddha,  they  are  in  reality  a  series  of 
pictures  from  life,  full  of  the  personality  of  the  long-dead 
and  forgotten  sculptors.  Local  tradition  assigns  the  four- 
teenth century  for  the  building  of  this  temple,  which  is 
only  one  of  many  scattered  throughout  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.1 

It  is  very  remarkable  that,  despite  the  extremely  high 
standard  of  artistic  merit  reached  in  the  Hindoo  remains 
in  Java  and  elsewhere,  and  the  fact  that  the  Javanese 
acquired  most  of  their  civilisation  from  the  same  source, 
there  is  no  sign  that  the  Malay  race  assimilated  this 
artistic  instinct,  or  followed  the  footsteps  of  their  first 
teachers  in  the  paths  of  aesthetic  development.  The  con- 
quest of  Buddhism  by  Islam  naturally,  no  doubt,  put  a 
check  on  such  a  method  of  decoration  as  that  employed 
by  the  Hindoos,  since  the  religion  of  Islam  prohibits  the 
representation  of  the  human  figure  in  painting  or  carving. 
But  when  we  remember  the  exquisitely  artistic  produc- 
tions of  the  Arab  in  other  lands  it  is  really  remarkable 
that  he  should  have  failed  to  instil  some  of  his  own  prin- 
ciples of  form  and  colour  into  the  Malay.  The  fact  is 

1  The  Dutch  usually  give  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  as  the  era  of  the 
building,  and  Ferguson  assumes  650-800  A.D.,  but  the  Javanese  date  (1344 
A.D.)  seems  more  probable. 


BAS   RELIEFS,  BORO-BODOR 


JAVA  331 

that  the  Mohammedan  conquest  was  extremely  slow, 
being  by  no  means  always  an  active  process,  but  rather 
a  gradual  spreading  of  the  doctrines  of  Islam,  and 
there  was,  therefore,  no  actual  Arab  invasion. 

To  the  English,  during  their  brief  term  of  occupation, 
belongs  the  distinction  of  discovering  the  carvings  to 
which  allusion  has  been  made,  as  they  had  all  been 
covered  with  earth,  probably  by  the  last  worshippers  of 
Buddha.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  more  is  not  done  for 
their  protection  by  the  Dutch  Government.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  most  of  the  ancient  temples  scattered 
throughout  the  colonial  empire,  but  more  particularly  at 
Boro-Bodor  and  Brambanan,  the  latter  being  a  perfect 
congeries  of  small  temples  crowded  with  carvings  and 
statues  which  are  inadequately  protected.  Some  idea 
of  the  extent  of  these  ruined  temples  may  be  gained  from 
the  fact  that  one  group  alone  at  Brambanan  consists  of 
a  large  central  temple  surrounded  by  two  hundred  and 
forty  smaller  ones,  all  decorated  with  beautifully  executed 
bas-reliefs,  carved  niches,  and  images. 

If  the  glory  of  the  temples  is  departed,  an  even 
greater  decay  reigns  in  the  walled  cities  and  palaces 
of  the  ancient  monarchs  of  Java.  The  Dutch  have 
encouraged  these  in  maintaining  a  certain  semblance 
of  dignity  and  authority,  having  chosen  to  rule  the 
people  through  their  own  chiefs,  but  the  "brief  au- 
thority" with  which  a  latter-day  Sultan  is  invested  is 
but  a  shadow  of  his  former  autocratic  sway,  and  de- 
prived of  the  opportunities  for  enriching  himself  by 
plunder  and  of  diverting  himself  by  bullying  his  sub- 
jects, he  has  sunk  into  a  very  third-rate  being,  whose 
great  desire  is  to  emulate  the  bearing  and  costume  of 
his  European  conquerors.  At  Djokjakarta  (a  terrible 


332  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Dutch  corruption  of  the  Sanscrit  name  "  Ayuga-karta  ") 
dwells  one  of  the  two  remaining  tributary  princes  of 
Java,  and  the  other  at  Soerakarta,  the  capital  of  the 
ancient  empire  of  Mataram.  Djokja  was  once  a 
dependency  of  Mataram.  The  story  of  these  two  king- 
doms is  so  full  of  intrigue,  wars,  rebellion,  and  usurpation 
that  it  is  impossible  to  even  outline  it.  It  was  the 
Sultan  of  Mataram  who  made  the  most  strenuous  oppo- 
sition to  the  Dutch,  and  in  the  early  days  of  the  English 
occupation  neither  he  nor  his  tributary  at  Djokja  were 
by  any  means  subdued.  The  energetic  action  of 
Stamford  Raffles  reduced  both  princes  to  submission, 
and  they  were  inclined  to  welcome  back  the  Dutch  as 
the  more  lenient  masters  of  the  two.  From  1825  to 
1830,  however,  an  internecine  war  raged  between  the 
two  native  States,  and  since  then  the  influence  of  the 
Sultans  has  steadily  declined.  Despite  the  fact  that 
the  mass  of  the  people  from  custom  worship  and  obey 
their  fallen  princes,  they  have  now  no  longer  the  power  of 
life  and  death,  and  rule  only  as  the  intermediaries  and 
representatives  of  the  Dutch  Government. 

The  Javanese  city  proper  in  which  the  Sultan  dwells 
is  called  the  Kraton,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  di- 
vided into  numerous  enclosures.  The  Kraton  at  Djokja 
is  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  a  busy  world  in 
itself,  containing  the  palace,  mosque,  cages  where  the 
royal  menagerie  was  kept,  and  numerous  other  build- 
ings, streets,  ponds,  canals,  kampongs,  and  gardens.  It  is 
peopled  by  some  ten  to  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants,  all 
more  or  less  connected  with  the  Court.  The  palace  at 
Djokja  has  a  dining-hall  capable  of  accommodating  six 
hundred  guests,  but  there  is  an  air  of  decay  over  the 
whole  building,  with  its  shabby  pretence  at  European 


JAVA 


333 


grandeur.  The  two  sad-looking  elephants,  now  the 
sole  occupants  of  the  menageries,  are  typical  of  the 
whole  Court,  and  the  great  Aloon-Aloon,  a  wide  square 
with  huge  trees  cut  into  stiff  shapes  which  is  the  heart 
of  the  ancient  city,  is  still  and  empty  in  the  sunshine, 
whereas  of  old  it  was  full  of  gaily  dressed  courtiers  riding 
and  driving  to  and  fro,  soldiers  parading,  and  attend- 


INSIDE   THE    KRATON,    DJOKJA 


ants  exercising  his  Highness's  animals.  The  Sultan 
drives  abroad  in  a  mylord  or  victoria  drawn  by  Java- 
nese ponies,  and  with  servants  in  the  native  costume  of 
sarong  and  short  jacket,  but  with  travestied  European 
headgear,  which  gives  a  most  farcical  air  to  the  whole 
turn-out.  His  followers,  if  they  are  headmen  of  villages 
and  as  such  recognised  by  the  Dutch,  stalk  about  wear- 
ing, over  the  bright-coloured  handkerchief  with  knotted 
ends  which  adorns  their  heads,  crownless  felt  hats  — 
strange  inventions  like  felt  coronets  high  in  front,  with 


334 


THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


perhaps  a  gilt  badge.  The  possession  of  such  a  hat  im- 
parts to  the  wearer  a  dignity  only  equalled  by  that  of  an 
individual  who  is  in  a  position  to  sport  the  gilt  buttons 
of  official  employment.  Policemen,  railway  guards,  and 
others  in  Dutch  employ  who  are  provided  with  Euro- 
pean uniforms  always  wear  the  regulation  cap  or  helmet 
over  the  inevitable  coloured  handkerchief  with  which 
their  heads  are  turbaned.  This  fact,  coupled  with  the 


THE  SULTAN'S  COURTYARD,  OR  ALOON-ALOON 

extreme  gravity  and  dignity  of  their  demeanour,  makes 
them  most  laughable  objects  to  the  unaccustomed  travel- 
ler. As  may  be  imagined,  with  such  a  population  the 
narrow  streets  of  the  Kratons  are  crowded  with  people 
and  the  market  is  a  busy  place.  Everywhere  one  is  struck 
with  the  extreme  poverty  of  the  people.  Their  houses  are 
destitute  of  furniture  except  for  a  raised  dais  of  bamboo 
and  a  few  mats ;  their  clothing  is  of  home-dyed  and  spun 
cotton,  generally  clean,  but  scanty  and  often  ragged ;  the 


JAVA  335 

wares  exposed  for  sale  are  wretched,  merely  vegetable 
products  which  they  have  gathered  in  the  woods,  with  a 
little  dried  fish  and  a  few  lean  fowls.  But  at  the  same  time 
there  is  a  general  air  of  good  humour  and  cheerfulness. 
Children  play  about  naked  in  the  dust  and  are  fondled 
by  their  parents,  every  one  is  smiling,  no  one  is  particu- 
larly busy,  and  though  emaciation  is  frequent  in  old 
age,  the  young  people  and  children  are  well-nourished 
and  comely. 

What  is  the  secret  of  this  apparent  lightness  of  heart 
under  such  straitened  conditions  ?  It  has  its  roots  deep 
in  the  character  of  the  Malay  race,  and  has  been  fostered 
by  the  conditions  of  life  in  this  fairest  of  islands.  The 
Javanese  are  pre-eminently  happy  and  cheerful,  regarding 
the  greatest  calamities  with  philosophy.  Even  sickness 
and  death  do  not  shake  them.  "  If  God  wills  it,  what 
can  we  do?"  runs  their  favourite  phrase,  and  they  take 
no  thought  for  the  morrow,  being  content  if  to-day  the 
sun  shines  and  they  have  a  little  food.  The  Dutch 
make  them  work,  which  is  not  to  their  taste,  but  they 
have  been  compelled  to  labour  by  their  own  princes 
from  time  immemorial,  as  witness  the  very  high  state  of 
cultivation  found  in  Java  and  Sumatra  when  first  visited 
by  Europeans.  The  system  on  which  the  Dutch 
arranged  this  forced  labour  will  be  described  later. 
Enough  here  to  say  that  it  necessitated  really  hard  work, 
but  on  the  whole  has  resulted  in  a  great  improvement  in 
the  condition  of  the  people.  Some  features  of  the  oft- 
abused  Dutch  system  are  worthy  of  consideration.  The 
Dutch  restrict  the  use  of  opium  as  far  as  possible,  and 
do  not  license  gambling,  though  it  is  such  a  passion 
with  all  Malay  races  that  its  eradication  would  be  im- 
possible. The  villages  are  scrupulously  neat  and  tidy; 


336  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

there  are  no  paupers  and  no  workhouses ;  there  is  no 
drunkenness,  and  such  a  thing  as  starvation  is  unknown. 

Social  life  and  morals  display  an  amiable  slackness 
and  cheerful  acquiescence  in  whatever  comes  along. 
Marriages  are  arranged  by  a  go-between,  the  husband 
buying  his  bride,  often  of  a  very  tender  age,  and  polyg- 
amy is  allowed,  though  the  common  people  can  seldom 
afford  it.  Divorce  is  cheap  and  easy,  two  and  a  half 
rupees  being  the  price  for  a  certificate  of  divorce,  and 
incompatibility  of  temper  is  by  no  means  the  least  of  the 
reasons  advanced.  A  servant  questioned  as  to  the 
absence  of  his  wife  answers:  "She  is  gone,"  and  on 
being  further  interrogated,  says :  "  Oh,  yes !  I  had  to 
get  rid  of  her,  she  ate  too  much  —  ate  up  all  my  money." 
No  ill  feeling  exists  between  couples  who  have  parted 
thus ;  the  husband,  divorced  wife,  and  new  wife  are  all  on 
the  best  of  terms,  and  will  go  to  see  each  other,  while  the 
children  are  amicably  arranged  for,  living  either  with 
the  mother  or  with  relations  on  either  side.  Women 
may  re-marry  as  often  as  they  please,  but  only  once  can 
they  have  a  grand  wedding  or  wear  bridal  clothes. 

There  is  no  observance  of  a  weekly  holiday  (either 
religious  or  secular)  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  but  there 
are,  of  course,  feast-days  and  festal  seasons,  in  which 
their  nominal  religion  is  much  intermixed  with  ancient 
customs.  There  are  five  celebrations  of  the  New  Year,  all 
signalised  by  a  certain  amount  of  holiday-making,  dress- 
ing-up,  firing  of  crackers,  and  so  forth.  These  are  the 
Christian,  Mohammedan,  Chinese,  Malay,  and  Javanese 
festivals,  which  occur  on  different  days.  The  animals 
have  a  New  Year's  day  of  their  own,  in  honour  of 
which  they  are  decorated  with  flowers,  have  their  horns 
gilt,  and  are  led  in  procession. 


JAVA  337 

The  writer  was  informed  by  a  lady  who  had  kept 
house  for  many  years  in  Java  that  the  natives  are 
excellent  servants ;  but  those  who  have  been  accustomed 
to  the  perfect  service  and  cooking  of  the  Chinese  "  boy  " 
are  less  enthusiastic,  and  from  a  cursory  observation  in 
hotels  one  is  inclined  to  say  that  for  carelessness  and 
stupidity  the  Javanese  are  hard  to  beat.  An  excellent 
story  comes  from  an  Englishwoman  in  Batavia,  who  had 
instructed  her  servants  to  move  a  wardrobe  from  one 
room  to  another.  Having  carefully  shown  the  spot 
where  it  was  to  stand  she  went  away.  Half  an  hour 
later  her  head  boy  sought  her  with  a  deeply  puzzled 
expression.  "  Is  the  wardrobe  to  stand  with  .its  face  or 
its  back  to  the  wall  ?  "  he  inquired.  His  mistress  looked 
at  him  with  quiet  hopelessness.  "  If  you  put  it  face  to 
the  wall,  how  can  I  open  it  ? "  she  asked.  "  That's  just 
what  we've  all  been  discussing !  "  he  replied.  Comment, 
as  the  newspapers  say,  was  not  only  superfluous  but 
useless. 

The  great  failing  of  the  Javanese  is  their  untruthful- 
ness,  but  they  exhibit  also  in  a  marked  degree  two  other 
Malay  characteristics,  laziness  and  lack  of  ambition. 
They  are  not  quarrelsome,  are  little  given  to  running 
amok,  but  are  intensely  improvident,  squandering  any 
money  that  comes  to  them  with  the  most  sublime  dis- 
regard for  the  future.  There  is  little  crime  among 
them,  especially  when  the  density  of  the  population  is 
taken  into  account,  and  on  the  whole  they  are  very  easy 
to  rule.  Music  is  a  passion  with  them,  and  when  the 
day's  work  and  the  afternoon  siesta  are  over,  from  every 
quarter  of  the  native  villages  rise  the  sounds  of  song, 
of  stringed  instruments  and  others  curiously  constructed 
from  lengths  of  bamboo.  Native  bands  travel  about 


338  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

accompanied  by  girls  who  dance,  and  the  villagers 
cluster  round,  while  to  the  monotonous  rhythmic  refrain 
the  dancer  twists  her  body,  waves  a  narrow  scarf,  and 
performs  wonderful  turns  with  her  wrists.  The  hands 
play  a  great  part  in  these  dances,  being  bent  stiffly 
upwards  while  the  fingers  quiver  constantly.  The  ordi- 
nary dancer  is  dressed  in  a  curious  garb  of  velvet  and 
tinsel,  but  the  performers  at  Court  functions  and 
theatrical  representations  wear  elaborate  head-dresses, 
suggesting  nothing  save  old  Egyptian  carvings,  and  they 

frequently  wear  masks  of  weird 
shapes,  with  pointed  noses,  col- 
oured differently  according  to 
the  character  represented.  Thus 
gods  wear  gold  masks,  distin- 
guished men  white,  giants  and 
evil  spirits  red. 

The  Dutch  method  of  govern- 
ing Java  will  be  described  in  the 

A  JAVANESE   COURT   DANCER  ,  ,  .,  , 

next    chapter,    but    it    must    be 

mentioned  here  that  there  is  a  sort  of  racial  division 
between  east  and  west ;  it  is  said  that  the  Sundanese, 
who  inhabit  the  west,  are  superior  in  character  to  other 
Javanese  —  all  Javanese  are  liars,  say  the  Dutch,  but  the 
Sundanese  lie  less  than  the  others  ! 

The  climate  is  of  course  tropical,  and  the  rainfall  is 
peculiarly  high,  a  feature  of  the  rainy  season  being  the 
extremely  heavy  thunderstorms.  The  rainfall  decreases 
towards  the  east,  being  greatest  at  the  end  nearest 
Sumatra,  while  in  that  island  it  is  exceptional.  On 
the  coast,  especially  during  the  wet  season  (from  October 
to  March),  the  climate  is  very  trying  from  its  heat  and 
humidity,  but  within  easy  reach  by  rail  are  the  exquisite 


JAVA  339 

health  resorts  among  the  mountains,  where  a  delightful 
and  bracing  air  can  be  enjoyed  amidst  perfect  scenery. 
Many  business  people  live  at  Buitenzorg,  the  most  ac- 
cessible of  these  from  the  coast,  and  go  to  their  offices 
at  Batavia  every  day.  A  curious  feature  of  the  rainy 
season  is  the  absolute  regularity  with  which  the  rain  be- 
gins. During  the  writer's  stay  at  Garoet  it  never  varied 
for  a  day,  but  beginning  at  2  o'clock  continued  steadily 
till  4.30  or  5,  when  the  sun  again  shone. 

With  abundant  rainfall  and  brilliant  sun  it  is  natural 
that  vegetation  should  flourish,  and  Java  is  literally 
clothed  with  green.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the 
trees  and  plants,  which  are  tropical  near  the  coast,  and 
change  gradually  until  on  the  high  mountains  we  find 
oaks  and  laurels,  and  still  higher  conifers,  heaths,  and 
other  familiar  trees  and  plants.  The  dweller  in  Batavia 
may  gather  in  his  garden  the  crimson  hibiscus,  with  its 
long  pendant  tassel,  or  the  great  yellow,  sweet-scented 
alamander.  Going  up  to  Buitenzorg  —  an  hour's  journey 
—  he  passes  through  groves  of  slender,  dainty  bamboos, 
and  finds  the  garden  of  his  country  villa  fragrant  with 
roses.  Taking  train  again,  he  reaches  a  high  point  on 
the  railway,  where  the  hotel  is  surrounded  by  ferns  and 
the  mountains  are  clothed  with  forests  of  fig-trees. 
Leaving  this,  he  makes  an  excursion  up  the  mountains, 
to  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  craters,  and  on  his  way  he 
may  gather  in  their  seasons  violets,  ranunculus,  prim- 
roses, St.  John's-wort,  lily-of-the-valley,  rhododendrons, 
foxgloves,  honeysuckle,  and  many  other  dear  familial- 
flowers,  not  all  perhaps  exactly  similar  to  the  English 
blossoms  but  of  the  same  species.  Higher  still  are 
found  characteristic  alpine  flora.  Such  fruits  as  the 
raspberry  and  strawberry  can,  of  course,  be  cultivated, 


340  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

but  Java  is  rich  in  typically  Malay  fruit,  of  which  the 
king  is  perhaps  the  mangosteen.  This  is  about  the  size 
of  a  mandarin  orange,  and  has  a  green  prickly  outside, 
which  when  split  open  reveals  an  interior  of  richest 
crimson,  in  which  is  embedded  a  fruit  of  the  purest 
white,  of  the  consistency  of  clotted  cream  and  the  most 
delicious  slightly  sub-acid  flavour.  The  durian  is  pro- 
nounced by  natives  and  those  foreigners  who  have  got 
over  its  peculiar  smell  to  be  the  most  delicious  of  all 
tropical  fruits,  and  the  Chinese  will  give  almost  any  price 
for  it ;  but  as  its  odour  has  been  correctly  described  as 
like  nothing  in  the  world  but  a  putrefying  corpse,  and 
as  one  durian  will  scent  a  whole  village,  it  is  not  always 
popular  with  Europeans. 

Delightful  Java,  with  its  gleaming  /^'-fields,  distant 
volcanoes,  trickling  water,  and  busy,  merry  people ! 
It  is  melancholy  to  think  that  this  quiet  backwater  of 
the  stream  of  civilisation  should  be  doomed,  and  yet 
who  can  doubt  that  such  is  the  case  ?  The  leisurely, 
conservative  Dutch  are  the  only  members  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  family  who  could  have  preserved  this  state  of 
affairs,  but  will  they  not  be  swept  forward  by  the  irre- 
sistible tide  of  modern  restlessness  and  absorbed  in 
the  onward  march  of  the  civilised  world  ?  They  lie  like 
a  great  dam  across  the  rushing  stream  of  progress,  but 
already  one  of  their  outposts,  i.e.  South  Africa,  has  been 
washed  away,  and  with  the  rise  of  Australasia,  the 
advent  of  the  United  States  in  the  Far  East,  and  the 
growth  of  German  influence  who  can  foresee  the  end? 

There  will  no  doubt  be  improvements,  and  many  are 
needed;  but  it  is  impossible  to  see  the  Javanese  at  home 
and  not  realise  the  truth  of  the  old  adage :  "  Where 
ignorance  is  bliss,  'tis  folly  to  be  wise." 


A   MALAY   RIVER   SCENE 


THE    COLONIAL    DUTCH    AND    THEIR    METHODS 

IT  has  been  said  already  that,  although  the  Indian 
empire  of  Holland  contains  many  islands  and  parts  of 
islands,  three  at  least  being  of  greater  extent  than  Java, 
it  is  that  island  alone  which  must  be  taken  to  represent 
Dutch  colonial  empire,  since  all  the  others  are  more 
or  less  independent.  In  Java  the  whole  country  is  por- 
tioned out,  ruled,  and  legislated  for  with  the  utmost  care, 
and  the  system  adopted  is  worthy  of  close  attention. 
The  island  of  Madura  is  included  with  Java  in  the  inter- 
nal possessions,  and  in  writing  of  the  colonial  Dutch 
and  their  methods  it  must  be  understood  that  the  con- 
dition of  affairs  described  is  confined  to  these  islands. 
An  attempt  has  already  been  made  to  show  what  is 
being  done,  and  left  undone,  in  the  external  possessions. 
Java  is  divided  into  three  parts  —  east,  west,  and  cen- 
tral—  which  are  subdivided  into  provinces,  there  being 
twenty-two  in  all,  including  Madura.  These  provinces, 
presided  over  by  Residents,  are  split  up  into  districts 

341 


342  THE    MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

known  as  "regencies,"  in  each  of  which  is  a  native 
prince  or  regent,  chosen  by  the  Dutch  from  the  aris- 
tocracy of  the  district,  who  is  supervised  in  the  perform- 
ance of  his  duties  by  an  Assistant  Resident.  There  is 
another  rank  of  Dutch  officials  called  contrbleurs,  who 
are  under  the  Assistant  Resident,  and  must  report  to 
him,  and  the  communes  or  dessas  are  each  under  a  head- 
man, who  is  responsible  to  the  Dutch  officials  for  the 
taxes  and  peace  and  order  of  his  village.  The  adminis- 
tration of  justice  is  entirely  carried  on  by  the  Dutch. 
The  regents  exercise  the  functions  of  district  chiefs  of 
police,  the  Assistant  Resident  deals  with  petty  delin- 
quencies and  acts  as  a  committee  magistrate,  and  the 
districts  are  visited  in  turn  by  judges  appointed  from 
Holland.  All  Europeans,  or  persons  allied  to  them,  are 
tried  before  Dutch  courts. 

Over  all  officials  is  the  Governor-General,  practically  a 
Viceroy,  whose  palace  is  at  Buitenzorg,  and  who  is  aided 
by  a  council  of  five  officials  nominated  by  himself.  One 
of  the  judges  with  a  very  wide  district  told  the  writer 
that  crime  is  rare,  the  majority  of  the  cases  coming  be- 
fore him  being  of  a  minor  description,  and  this  although 
the  treatment  of  criminals  is  very  lenient. 

A  noticeable  feature  in  Javanese  villages  is  that  the 
houses  of  the  Dutch  officials  are  often  right  in  the 
midst  of  those  of  the  natives.  The  Dutch  permit  similar 
freedom  of  intercourse,  and  despite  the  prevalent  idea 
that  they  treat  their  vassals  hardly  it  is  evident  to  any 
one  who  knows  the  Indian  Empire  that  the  gulf  between 
British  and  Hindoo  is  far  wider  than  that  between  Dutch 
and  Malay.  This  is  no  doubt  partly  due  to  the  lack 
of  caste  distinctions  in  Netherlands  India.  In  India, 
as  has  been  well  said,  the  British  form  a  caste  by  them- 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH  AND  THEIR  METHODS     343 

selves  and  that  the  ruling  one,  but  the  attitude  of  the 
Dutch  towards  Eurasians,  the  mode  of  life  adopted  by 
them,  and  the  fact  that  their  women  frequently  wear 
the  native  dress,  are  all  signs  of  a  bond  between  con- 
querors and  conquered.  Such  things  would  be  abso- 
lutely impossible  in  India.  Living  literally  with  the 
people,  the  minor  Dutch  officials  acquire  a  minute  per- 
sonal knowledge  of  the  circumstances  of  each  family;  and 
the  well-kept  villages  and  low  rate  of  crime  are  probably 
largely  due  to  this  close  supervision.  The  personal  ele- 
ment makes  all  the  difference  to  the  Malay,  and  the 
writer  ventures  to  think  that  an  attempt  to  rule  him  on 
the  official  red-tape,  cast-iron  system  would  have  been  far 
less  beneficial  in  its  results.  Unfortunately  Holland  has 
not  moved  with  the  times,  has  attempted  to  close  her 
possessions  to  the  outer  world,  and  has  adopted  a  cheese- 
paring policy  in  the  remuneration  of  her  minor  officials, 
who  are  often  so  poorly  paid  that  they  must  be  of  supe- 
rior calibre  to  resist  the  temptation  of  making  a  squeeze 
out  of  the  natives. 

The  Dutch  colonial  Civil  Service  presents  many  con- 
trasts with  the  British,  of  which  we  are  justly  so  proud, 
and  it  is  to  the  mistakes  in  its  organisation  that  many 
obvious  defects  are  due,  while  at  the  same  time  it  has  a 
permanent  character  to  which  must  be  attributed  much 
of  Holland's  success  in  dealing  with  Java,  and  her  good 
fortune  in  acquiring  and  retaining  other  islands.  Civil 
Service  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  for  life;  promotion 
is  slow,  salaries  are  small,  and  furloughs  few  and  far 
between,  but  the  official  is  not  superannuated  in  the 
prime  of  life,  and  almost  invariably  on  retiring  (when 
he  receives  a  pension)  he  settles  in  Java,  on  one  of  the 
high,  beautiful,  healthy  spots  to  be  found  in  that  favoured 


344  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

island.  The  result  of  this  system  is  that  men  who 
come  out  to  the  East  soon  lose  touch  with  Holland. 
They  cease  to  think  of  it  as  home,  to  long  for  their 
return  with  the  sick  longing  which  the  British  official 
in  India  knows  so  well.  There  is  none  of  that  pathetic 
effort  to  create  an  atmosphere  of  Europe  in  the  East, 
none  of  that  striving  to  retain  the  manners,  dress,  and 
style  of  home,  or  to  keep  abreast  of  affairs  in  the  old 
country.  On  the  contrary  the  Dutch  have  evolved  a 
method  of  living  which  is  a  close  compromise  between 
European  and  Malay.  They  become  absorbed  in  colo- 
nial affairs,  invest  their  money,  if  they  have  any,  in 
land  or  plantations,  get  to  know  intimately  the  people 
of  their  district  where  they  have  every  prospect  of 
remaining  an  indefinite  number  of  years,  and  generally 
settle  down  to  be  happy  in  what  they  regard  as  their 
future  home.  They  can  marry  and  bring  up  their 
families  without  that  heart-rending  separation  which 
casts  a  gloom  over  Anglo-Indian  society,  and  altogether 
there  are  many  consolations  for  them  in  their  voluntary 
exile. 

The  Civil  Service  appointments,  by  competitive  ex- 
amination, were  at  first  made  entirely  from  Holland,  but 
for  a  while  the  experiment  was  tried  of  holding  the 
qualifying  examinations  also  in  Java.  The  large  pro- 
portion of  Eurasians  who  thus  obtained  admission  to 
the  official  ranks,  however,  determined  the  return  to  the 
former  system,  but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  Eurasians 
from  competing  in  Holland,  and  there  are  colleges  in 
Java  where  they  can  prepare.  The  study  of  languages  is 
much  insisted  on ;  besides  the  native  tongue,  Javanese, 
English,  German,  and  French  are  obligatory,  while 
Italian  and  Spanish  are  sometimes  added.  The  aver- 


THE   COLONIAL  DUTCH   AND  THEIR  METHODS    345 

age  Dutch  official  speaks  English  and  German  perfectly, 
and  French  fluently  with  a  German  accent.  At  all 
hotels  in  the  larger  towns  there  are  English,  German, 
and  French  speaking  interpreters  or  managers,  so  that 
the  casual  visitor  does  not  have  to  vex  his  soul  with  the 
eccentric  Dutch  language.  Pidgin  English  and  German 
are  most  useful  in  the  shops,  which  are  usually  served 
by  Chinese  or  cosmopolitan  Germans,  and  in  Sourabaya 
the  homesick  traveller  from  the  Land-o'-cakes  can  soothe 
his  ear,  in  a  large  and  well-stocked  emporium,  with 
accents  familiar  beyond  the  Tweed.  Half  a  dozen  words 
of  Malay,  including  an  objurgation  and  the  expression 
"  Hurry  up ! "  are  sufficient  for  hotel  servants  and  drivers. 
The  traveller  is  warned  that  it  is  never  safe  in  Java 
to  indulge  in  personal  remarks  about  the  company  pres- 
ent, under  the  impression  that  he  himself  speaks  in  an 
unknown  tongue,  unless  he  does  so  in  Greek  or  perhaps 
the  language  spoken  in  Scottish  novels  of  the  Kailyard 
school. 

The  permanence  of  Dutch  residence  is  shown  in  the 
way  they  build  their  houses,  which  are  usually  of  stone, 
with  marble  floors  in  wealthy  houses,  and  in  the  clubs 
and  public  buildings  marble  pillars  also.  These  hand- 
some and  solid  buildings  stand  in  gardens,  divided  only 
by  a  low  flowering  hedge  from  the  broad  smooth  roads. 
The  fronts  are  open  verandahs,  and  the  central  room, 
which  is  usually  the  sitting-  or  dining-room,  is  also 
frequently  visible  from  the  road.  Furniture  is  plain  and 
scarce,  consisting  usually  of  a  round  table,  a  circle  of 
rocking-chairs  on  the  verandah,  a  dining-table  and  side- 
board, with  some  severe  straight-backed  chairs  in  the 
inner  room.  Large  plants  stand  about  and  break  the 
bareness  of  the  rooms,  and  the  front  garden,  if  typi- 


346  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

cally  Dutch  East  Indian,  contains  row  upon  row  of 
small  whitewashed  pedestals  supporting  whitewashed 
pots,  in  which  gay-coloured  flowers  are  blooming.  One 
of  these  gardens  at  night  strongly  resembles  a  graveyard 
studded  with  white  tombs,  but  the  Dutch  love  of  white- 
wash is  ineradicable,  and  despite  the  reputation  the 
vrouw  has  acquired  for  cleanliness  in  her  European 
home  it  is  to  be  feared  that,  under  the  enervating  influ- 
ence of  Oriental  life,  she  is  inclined  to  let  a  coat  of 
whitewash  do  duty  for  innumerable  scrubbings. 

The  day  begins  early  with  a  cup  of  delicious  coffee, 
roll  and  butter.  In  hotels  the  visitor  can  make  a  more 
substantial  breakfast  by  partaking  of  potted  meats, 
slices  of  half-raw  ham,  cold  soft-boiled  eggs,  gingerbread, 
and  other  viands,  which  are  rendered  less  tempting  by 
the  fact  that  they  are  frequently  placed  on  the  table 
over  night  and  protected  with  wire  cages  from  the  hosts 
of  flies.  The  Dutch  lady  appears  at  this  meal  in  the 
native  costume  of  sarong,  either  of  checked  silk  or 
cotton,  and  white  cambric  kibaya.  The  latter  was 
well  described  by  an  Englishman  as  a  "hair-brushing 
jacket";  the  former  is  a  skirt  without  a  runner  at  the 
waist,  which  is  merely  kept  in  place  by  a  tucked-in  fold 
in  front.  The  best  that  can  be  said  for  it  is  that  no 
European  can  wear  it  gracefully.  On  the  native  woman, 
whose  figure  is  boldly  outlined,  just  as  her  cotton  jacket 
often  leaves  her  brown  bosom  picturesquely  bare  with- 
out outraging  any  sense  of  propriety,  it  is  as  beautiful 
and  appropriate  as  the  graceful  kimono  of  Japan,  though 
hardly  as  expressive  of  modesty.  But  on  the  European 
lady,  whose  bare  pink  feet  and  ankles  peep  out  from 
beneath  the  skirt  in  heelless  gold-embroidered  slippers, 
it  begets  in  the  unaccustomed  male  mind  an  inclination 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     347 

to  retire  incontinently.  This  costume,  with  the  addition 
of  a  parasol,  is  considered  quite  correct  for  morning 
walks  and  shopping,  but  is  only  worn  by  married  ladies. 
Girls  are  attired  in  cotton  dressing-gowns,  loose  and 
full,  and  this  is  the  favourite  travelling-dress  for  all 
ladies.  The  Dutch  gentleman  is  equally  neglige  in  his 
costume.  After  bathing  he  puts  on  a  clean  suit  of 
pyjamas  and  loose  slippers  —  and  so  attired  wanders 
round  the  hotel  grounds  or  the  gardens  of  his  house 
until  it  is  time  to  dress  (always  in  white  ducks)  and 
go  to  office.  Anything  more  immaculate  when  he  is 
dressed  it  is  difficult  to  imagine,  for  he  is  in  snowy 
white  from  head  to  heel,  and  even  in  smoking  innumer- 
able cigars  he  manages  somehow  to  retain  this  spotless 
appearance.  At  one  o'clock  is  the  great  meal  of  the 
day,  uri/s~fafeln  —  literally  rice-table.  As  the  name 
implies,  this  meal  has  a  foundation  of  rice,  and  with  it 
are  eaten  a  vast  number  of  dishes,  some  of  them  curries, 
others  fowls  and  game-birds,  salad,  eggs  in  various 
forms,  dried  fish,  pickles,  vegetables,  meat,  and  in  fact 
almost  every  kind  of  food.  These  are  taken  ad  libitum, 
piled  on  top  of  the  rice,  the  mixture  well-stirred,  and  eaten 
with  a  spoon.  At  first  one  is  rather  pleased  by  this 
dish,  or  collection  of  dishes,  but  it  soon  grows  monoto- 
nous, and  as  various  dishes  are  frequently  cold  before 
one  gets  them  owing  to  the  custom  of  never  heating 
the  plates,  there  is  a  fade,  insipid  air  about  rijs-tafel 
which  makes  one  long  for  one  well-cooked  dish,  hot 
plates,  and  juicy  vegetables.  The  rice-table  is  usually 
followed  by  tough  steak  served  with  salad  and  potatoes, 
and  coffee  and  dessert  end  the  meal,  which  is  a  dis- 
tinctly heavy  one  for  the  middle  of  a  hot  day. 

After  this  meal  the  whole  population  retires  to  rest, 


348  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

and  between  the  hours  of  two  to  five  everything  is  at  a 
standstill.  The  colonial  Dutch  take  their  afternoon 
siesta  very  seriously  ;  retiring  to  their  bedrooms  and  clos- 
ing windows  and  doors,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  they 
sleep  the  sleep  of  the  just,  while  their  Malay  attendants 
slumber  soundly  in  their  own  quarters.  Nothing  but  an 
earthquake  disturbs  these  slumbers,  and  not  always  that  1 
At  five  they  rise,  bathe,  and  dress,  but  report  says  that 
many  of  the  ladies  are  too  lazy  to  get  into  tight  Euro- 
pean dress  and  therefore  forego  the  afternoon  drive.  The 
gentlemen  go  to  the  Harmonie  or  club,  where  they  read 
the  papers  and  if  intensely  energetic  play  billiards.  The 
calling  hour  is  from  seven  to  eight,  according  to  the 
time  for  late  dinner,  and  it  is  not  de  rigueur  to  leave  before 
the  hour  strikes.  Gentlemen  must  call  in  evening  dress. 
Outdoor  sports  and  exercises  are  little  indulged  in,  so- 
far  as  the  writer  was  able  to  judge,  but  this  is  a  sore  point 
with  the  Colonial  Dutch,  and  many  of  them  assured  the 
writer  that  they  played  cricket  and  football.  It  must 
therefore  be  supposed  that  they  indulge  in  these  pastimes 
in  strict  privacy.  British  residents  in  Batavia  have  a  tennis 
and  cricket  club,  and  are  fond  of  riding,  but  they  com- 
plain that  the  Dutch  will  not  join  in  these  sports.  The 
exercise  which  they  love,  and  at  which  they  excel,  is  danc- 
ing, and  dancing-parties  are  frequent,  while  the  elder  gen- 
eration who  have  lost  their  taste  for  it  (or  become  too- 
stout)  are  very  devoted  to  cards.  The  late  dinner,  at  eight 
to  nine  o'clock,  is  rather  a  sketchy  affair.  The  Dutchman 
prepares  for  it  by  drinking  innumerable  "  pahits,"  which 
consist  of  tiny  glasses  of  gin  and  aniseed,  while  he  and  his 
family  sit  round  the  table  on  the  verandah  at  this  sociable 
hour  and  the  ladies  ruin  their  digestions  with  eating 
sweets.  On  certain  evenings  there  is  music  in  the  gar- 


THE   COLONIAL  DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     349 

dens  of  the  club,  provided  by  the  local  or  military  band. 
The  Batavian  band  is  the  finest  in  the  East,  and  as  one 
sits  in  the  garden  under  graceful  trees,  the  stars  begin- 
ning to  peep  out  of  a  darkening  sky,  the  electric  globes 
twinkling  and  waiters  hurrying  to  and  fro  with  coffee  or 
lemonade,  one  might  almost  imagine  oneself  at  Earl's- 
Court  —  were  it  not  for  the  excellence  of  the  music. 

Batavia  itself  is  perhaps  the  finest  and  most  beautiful 
town  in  the  Far  East.  Singapore  is  justly  admired  for 
its  handsome  buildings,  beautiful  sea-frontage  and  pretty 
roads,  but  Batavia  surpasses  it  in  all  these.  The  harbour 
is  exceptionally  fine  and  the  quay  is  of  immense  length 
and  well  built.  The  residential  quarter  is  distant  about 
half  an  hour's  ride  by  rail,  the  low-lying  coast  having 
been  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  more  healthy  spot.  The 
impressions  carried  away  of  Batavia  are  pleasant  ones  — 
memories  of  broad  shady  roads  arched  by  trees,  of  sub- 
urbs composed  of  pretty  villas  in  gay  flower-gardens,  of 
wide,  open  spaces  dominated  by  handsome  public  build- 
ings, and  of  the  picturesque  native  market  and  inevitable 
rows  of  Chinese  shops. 

Sourabaya,  the  second  town  in  Java,  is  a  busy  com- 
mercial place,  its  harbour  crowded  with  all  sorts  of  craft, 
its  streets  bustling  with  traffic,  through  which  the  steam 
tram  glides  with  a  jangling  of  bells.  It  lies  low/  and 
is  hot  and  mosquito-infected,  nevertheless  its  European 
inhabitants  have  a  cheerful  healthy  air,  for  within  easy 
reach  by  rail  and  carriage  is  the  famous  health  resort  of 
Tosari,  in  the  Javanese  Switzerland.  This  little  place  is 
perched  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain  5800  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  from  it  one  has  a  grand  pan- 
oramic view  of  volcanic  peaks  which  tower  above  and 
around  on  every  side.  The  air  is  keen  and  bracing, 


350  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

and  the  country,  despite  its  elevation  and  the  steepness 
of  the  mountains,  is  highly  cultivated  and  populous. 
The  jaded  Singaporean  must  envy  the  Dutch  in  Java 
these  delightful  health  resorts,  where  roses  come  back 
to  white  cheeks  and  the  sparkle  to  tired  eyes.  It  is  a 
matter  for  wonder  at  first  sight  that  the  mountains  of 
Java  should  not  become  a  sanatorium  for  the  Far  East 
as  Switzerland  is  for  Western  Europe,  but  there  are 
several  difficulties  in  the  way,  though  these  have  been 
much  exaggerated. 

The  writer  was  told  in  Singapore  (whence  very  few 
people  have  made  the  journey)  that  travelling  in  Java  was 
exceedingly  uncomfortable,  that  the  hotels  were  bad,  and 
that  there  was  much  red  tape  and  annoyance  about 
passports  for  all  who  are  not  Dutch,  and  such  seems 
to  be  the  impression  throughout  the  East. 

As  to  the  first  two  charges,  it  can  only  be  said  that 
the  train  service  leaves  something  to  be  desired,  and  the 
rolling  stock  is  not  of  the  latest  pattern,  but  the  second- 
and  first-class  carriages  are  quite  equal  to  those  of  the 
average  Continental  trains,  and  the  scenery  through 
which  the  line  passes  is  so  beautiful  as  to  render  the 
journey  agreeable  to  all  who  really  care  for  Nature.  The 
hotels  have  already  been  described,  but  even  in  country 
places  they  are  clean  and  comfortable.  The  food  is 
indigestible  to  a  foreigner,  but  that  is  doubtless  a  fault 
in  his  education.  If  he  began  at  a  tender  age  to  eat 
pickled  onions  and  rice  alternately  (as  do  the  Dutch 
children  one  meets  at  table  d'hote)  he  would,  no  doubt, 
be  able  to  thrive,  later  on,  on  rijs-tafel.  The  regulations 
as  to  travellers'  passports  are  strict,  and  a  special  permit 
must  be  obtained  to  visit  the  interior,  while  every  pass- 
port goes  to  Buitenzorg  to  be  signed  by  the  Governor- 


THE   COLONIAL  DUTCH  AND  THEIR   METHODS    351 

General  or  his  secretary.  An  amusing  instance  of  this 
attention  to  detail  was  afforded  the  writer,  who,  having 
placed  himself  in  the  hands  of  his  consul,  did  not 
trouble  further  about  his  passport,  and  went  up  to  Bui- 
tenzorg  directly.  Some  delay  occurred  in  forwarding 
the  papers,  and  on  the  third  day  of  his  stay  a  polite  gen- 
tleman with  whom  he  had  conversed  at  table  d'hote 
remarked  gently  that  he  "thought  Mr.  Colquhoun  had 
forgotten  the  necessary  formalities,"  as  his  papers  had 
not  yet  been  vise.  He  was  in  the  Governor-General's 
office,  and  noticing  the  arrival  of  a  stranger  had  kept  a 
look-out  for  his  papers.  There  is  really,  however,  no 
more  trouble  connected  with  this  than  with  the  neces- 
sary passport  in  Russia,  which,  once  obtained,  is  merely 
given  to  the  hotel  proprietor  on  arriving  at  a  place  and 
returned  by  him  properly  vise  when  one  leaves.  The 
great  thing  is  to  apply  immediately,  with  full  details  of 
what  one  proposes  to  do,  to  one's  consul  at  Batavia  or 
Sourabaya,  wherever  one  lands. 

There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  Dutch,  albeit 
the  soul  of  politeness  to  the  stranger  within  their  gates, 
are  not  desirous  of  attracting  tourists  or  travellers  to 
Java.  The  steamer  fares  from  Singapore  are  exorbitant, 
railway  fares  are  high,  and  there  is  no  attempt  to  popu- 
larise the  country.  Inter-island  travel  is  even  more 
costly.  If  hotel  books  are  a  criterion,  the  majority  of 
the  foreign  visitors  are  Germans,  then  French,  and  a 
sprinkling  of  English  and  Americans.  The  Govern- 
ment also  puts  difficulties  in  the  way  of  aliens  wishing 
to  settle.  A  Dane,  who  had  bought  a  small  property  on 
the  island,  told  the  writer  that  he  was  frightened  by  the 
registration,  official  interference  (which  amounted  to 
taking  an  inventory  of  his  possessions),  and  the  prospect 


352 


THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


of  taxation,  and  accordingly  sold  out  and  fled.  He  has 
now  settled  in  Singapore,  where  he  can  certainly  enjoy 
full  liberty  and  freedom  from  espionage.  The  Customs 
regulations  also  seem  to  aim  at  excluding  the  foreigner, 
and  indeed  there  is  a  good  deal  of  truth  in  the  state- 
ment that  Java  is  kept  tightly  closed. 

One  of  the  great  grievances  of  aliens  who  settle  in 
Java  is   the  compulsory  military  service.     Every  Euro- 


TYPICAL   VILLAGE  AND   PAD1-F1ELDS 


pean  is  bound  to  serve  in  a  sort  of  militia  six  days  a 
month  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  forty-five.  The 
drilling  is  on  the  Prussian  system,  and  only  a  medical 
certificate  exempts  from  service,  the  punishment  for 
default  being  a  fine  of  five  guilders  (ten  shillings)  for 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     353 

a  first  offence,  ten  for  a  second,  and  court-martial  with 
a  possible  imprisonment  of  fourteen  days  for  the  third. 
This  citizen-army  is  absolutely  cosmopolitan,  and  a 
more  extraordinary  sight  than  a  squad  presents  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find.  The  Dutch  Colonial  army, 
about  30,000  in  number,  is,  like  the  Civil  Service,  very 
different  from  the  British.  There  is  no  system  of  draft- 
ing troops  from  Europe  to  serve  in  the  East  Indies ; 
enlistment  in  the  Colonial  army  is  quite  distinct  from 
the  home  service,  and  is  for  seven  years.  There  is  no 
very  stringent  qualification  required  and  men  of  all 
classes  and  nations  join  the  ranks,  which  are  frequently 
a  refuge  for  the  outcasts  of  other  armies.  At  the  end 
of  the  first  term  a  bounty  of  £$o-£6o  is  given,  and 
the  majority  of  the  men  re-enlist  for  a  further  seven 
years,  sometimes  for  a  third.  As  a  rule  they  end  by 
buying  a  small  piece  of  land  in  Java  and  settling  down, 
this  consummation  being  largely  assisted  by  the  fact  that 
almost  all  have  Javanese  wives  and  families.  This  army 
is  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  in  the  world  —  Greeks, 
Hebrews,  Galicians,  Turks,  and  dwellers  in  Mesopo- 
tamia—  all  are  invested  with  the  somewhat  dingy  blue 
uniform,  and  may  be  seen  drilling,  rather  limply,  or 
slouching  about  off  duty  with  bare  feet,  and  belt  hanging 
down.  The  Achin  war,  which  has  been  dragging  out 
a  weary  length  for  so  long,  has  been  prosecuted  by 
troops  like  these,  and  when  all  things  are  considered  the 
duration  of  the  campaign  does  not  seem  remarkable. 

An  interesting  parallel  is  sometimes  drawn  between 
the  wars  in  Achin  and  South  Africa,  and  superficially 
there  are  some  points  of  resemblance.  The  small  but 
warlike  nation  defying  an  European  Power  and  refus- 
ing to  be  assimilated  into  her  Colonial  empire,  the  diffi- 

2A 


354  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

cult  country,  the  impossibility  of  coming  to  close 
quarters  with  the  slippery  enemy,  and  the  sniping  which 
goes  on  continually  are  all  features  in  common ;  but  the 
comparison  breaks  down  when  we  remember  that  we  are 
putting  forth  our  whole  strength  to  defeat  the  Boers, 
and  that  our  country,  rich  as  she  is,  is  feeling  the  strain 
of  taxation  to  meet  the  enormous  expenses  involved. 
Holland  uses  none  but  her  Colonial  troops,  the  money 
comes,  not  out  of  the  pockets  of  ratepayers  at  home, 
but  from  the  profits  on  the  Government  estate  in  Java; 
the  whole  affair  is  a  Colonial  one,  and  as  such  does  not 
exercise  the  minds  of  people  at  home,  who  regard  it 
with  stoical  indifference  and  remember  that  it  took  forty 
years  to  thoroughly  subdue  Java.  The  conflict  has  long 
passed  out  of  the  attacking  stage,  and  the  present  tactics 
are  merely  to  blockade  the  coasts  and  as  far  as  possible 
the  hill  fastnesses,  in  the  hope  of  starving  the  Achinese 
into  surrendering.  It  is  currently  said  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  that  official  corruption  has  played  its  part 
in  prolonging  the  war,  since  a  number  of  people  make 
a  living  out  of  the  necessary  contracts  and  after  so 
many  years  would  miss  their  source  of  income  were 
it  removed.  The  writer  is  not  prepared  to  vouch  for 
this,  and  mentions  it  merely  as  the  view  of  a  section  of 
the  people.  As  to  the  rectitude  of  Dutch  officials  he 
is  also  unwilling  to  express  a  decided  opinion.  Most 
English  merchants  in  Java  declare  that  the  Dutch  are 
open,  honourable,  and  upright  in  all  their  dealings,  while 
on  the  other  hand  one  hears  stories  of  official  bribes. 
It  has  been  said  already  that  minor  officials  and  even 
more  important  posts  are  ill-paid,  and  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  long  contact  with  Orientals  is  apt  to 
sap  the  principles  especially  when  touch  with  Europe 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     355 

is  not  maintained,  but  it  may  be  added  that  in  Nether. 
lands  India  there  is  at  all  events  the  tradition  of  an 
upright  officialdom,  and  bribery  and  corruption  are  not 
recognised  openly  to  be  part  of  the  system,  as  is  usual 
in  all  Oriental  countries,  or  tacitly  permitted  as  in 
Russia. 

Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the  culture  sys- 
tem. Briefly  this  is  a  method  of  heerendiensten  or  corvee 
by  which  the  Government  compelled  the  Javanese  to 
cultivate  the  country,  not  directly  for  their  own  benefit, 
but  as  serfs  labouring  for  the  good  of  a  feudal  lord, 
incidentally  improving  their  own  condition.  Coffee, 
sugar,  indigo,  pepper,  tea,  and  tobacco  were  cultivated, 
each  Javanese  being  bound  to  labour  for  a  certain  num- 
ber of  days  each  month  without  payment,  while  the 
Government  either  paid  them  for  the  rest  of  their  work, 
or  bought  what  they  had  grown  privately  at  a  fixed  price. 
The  work  was  carried  out  through  the  native  chiefs  or 
headmen.  The  people  were  taught  the  arts  of  scientific 
agriculture,  were  organised  because  of  the  necessity  for 
numbering  and  arranging  them  to  compute  their  work, 
and  were  forced  to  rouse  themselves  from  the  sloth  natu- 
ral to  them.  It  was  the  wholesome  but  unpleasant  dis- 
cipline necessary  for  children,  and  the  question  arises 
whether  Europeans  are  justified  in  treating  an  entire 
people  on  these  lines.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  that 
the  Javanese,  who  submitted  to  this  system,  absolutely 
refused  to  pay  a  land-tax,  when  that  was  imposed  by 
Stamford  RafHes.  He  had  heard  of  the  system  in  force 
in  India  known  as  Ryotwarri,  which  briefly  meant 
the  division  of  the  country  among  the  natives  in  small 
holdings,  and  the  direct  tax  on  those  holdings.  This 
has  led  to  complications  and  difficulties  in  connection 


356  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

with  the  chittis  or  moneylenders,  who  have  become  all- 
powerful  and  eat  up  the  peasantry.  Stamford  Raffles  did 
not  see  any  of  its  results,  but  thought  it  a  good  and  merci- 
ful way  of  collecting  revenue.  The  land  to  belong  to  the 
people  on  condition  of  paying  a  small  tax  to  Government 
—  it  appeared  simple  and  advantageous,  but  the  Malay  has 
a  deeply  rooted  dislike  to  any  such  form  of  taxation, 
which  seems  to  him  to  deprive  him  of  his  freehold  rights 
in  the  land.  This  question  is  particularly  interesting  be- 
cause of  proposed  methods  of  taxation  by  the  United 
States  in  the  Philippines,  and  has  been  referred  to  already 
in  that  section  of  this  book.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
system  broke  down  almost  at  once  in  Java,  even  before 
its  originator  was  recalled. 

While  the  native  was  certainly  raised  by  the  discipline 
enforced,  it  must  be  added  that  the  Dutch  have  never 
regarded  it  as  desirable  that  the  Javanese  should  be 
given  an  European  education,  or  raised  to  a  position  of 
equal  culture  and  enlightenment  with  themselves.  Mis- 
sionary efforts  have  been  discouraged  and,  although 
native  schools  are  now  established  in  most  villages,  there 
has  been  a  distinct  tendency  to  keep  education  on  the 
most  primitive  lines.  Such  a  project  as  that  of  the 
United  States  in  immediately  providing  European  teach- 
ers and  schools  for  all  the  Filipinos  would  seem  revolu- 
tionary in  the  quiet  East  Indies  and,  although  in  Celebes 
there  is  a  whole  district  Christianised,  in  the  perfectly 
known  and  organised  Java  practically  no  attempt  is  made 
to  interfere  with  the  religion  of  the  natives.  In  the  first 
place,  however,  the  Minahasans  were  pagans,  while  the 
Javanese  are  nominally  at  all  events  Mohammedans  and 
in  every  village  some  have  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  conversion  of  Mohammedans 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     357 

is  a  difficult  task,  and  the  Dutch  Government  have  seen 
no  reason  to  interfere  with  a  religion  which  inculcates 
many  doctrines  calculated  to  make  good  citizens. 

Such,  briefly,  has  been  the  policy  of  Holland  in  her 
vast  Indian  Empire,  and  before  sketching  some  of  the 
more  recent  reforms  it  may  be  well  to  note  what  has 
hitherto  been  the  result  of  their  methods.  In  the  first 
place  the  native  has  been  utterly  left  to  himself  in  the 


A   BAS-RELIEF   FROM    BORO-BODOR 


outlying  possessions,  and  has  probably  picked  up  some 
of  the  vices  of  the  West  without  any  compensating  ad- 
vantages. In  any  case  the  islands  are  in  a  state  of  stag- 
nation both  as  regards  trade  and  progress.  In  one  or 
two  places,  such  as  Minahasa,  the  condition  of  affairs  is 
better,  but  the  point  at  which  the  people  arrived  was 
reached  some  little  time  ago.  In  Java  we  find  a  people 
happy  and  industrious,  but  ignorant  and  lacking  in 
moral  sense  —  children  in  fact,  though  their  education 


358  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

has  been  going  on  for  nearly  a  century.  The  estate  has 
hitherto  been  enormously  profitable  to  the  mother- 
country,  although  administration  has  been  and  is  very 
costly.  The  surplus,  however,  which  used  to  go  home 
to  enrich  the  Dutch  treasury,  has  for  years  past  been 
swallowed  up  by  expenses  of  government  and  the  Achin 
war.  The  total  of  the  import  trade  in  1898  was  nearly 
fifteen  millions  sterling,  while  the  exports  amounted  to 
eighteen,  giving  a  grand  total  of  thirty-three  millions. 
Of  this  the  major  part  goes  to  Holland,  and  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  exports  exceed  the  imports  by  the 
amount  of  three  millions.  Java  takes  nine  and  a  half 
millions  of  the  imports  and  over  twelve  of  exports,  and 
Sumatra  with  the  Rhio  islands,  which  are  in  close  prox- 
imity to  Singapore,  absorbs  three  millions  of  the  first  and 
three  and  a  half  millions  of  the  second,  so  that  the  rest  of 
the  Dutch  possessions  have  only  a  little  over  one  million 
imports  and  one  and  a  half  million  exports  between  them. 

Compare  these  figures  with  those  of  Indian  trade  with 
the  United  Kingdom  alone,  which  amounted  in  1899  to 
fifty-nine  and  a  half  millions,  and  yet  had  decreased  four 
millions  since  1881;  or  the  Australasian  trade  with  the 
mother  country,  which  reaches  some  fifty-eight  millions. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  Britain  administers  her  pos- 
sessions without  any  direct  profit  and  at  a  large  expense 
to  herself,  trusting  to  receive  back  her  own  through  the 
general  expansion  of  trade  and  opening  of  markets  to 
her  people. 

This  is  the  British  method  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Dutch,  which  aims  at  getting  a  profit  out  of  the 
country  directly,  and  at  all  events  at  making  it  self-sup- 
porting. The  figures  quoted  must  speak  for  themselves 
as  to  the  wisdom  of  the  rival  methods,  especially  when 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     359 

it  is  remembered  that  the  Dutch  East  Indies  have  prac- 
tically ceased  to  send  home  a  surplus,  everything  being 
absorbed  by  the  expenses  of  administration  and  the  Achin 
war.  Indeed  the  expenditure  in  Netherlands  India  now 
slightly  exceeds  the  revenue,  which  amounts  to  about 
twelve  millions. 

There  are  signs  that  Holland  is  awaking  to  the  faults 
in  her  system.  As  far  back  as  1870  a  Bill  was  passed 
confining  the  culture  system  merely  to  the  coffee  planta- 
tions, and  since  then  it  has  been  gradually  reduced  until 
at  present  it  is  only  partially  in  force.  Any  further 
reduction  seems  hardly  to  be  anticipated  at  present, 
since  the  private  coffee-plantations,  under  the  stress  of 
competition  from  outside,  are  not  remunerative  and  in 
places  are  abandoned.  For  the  maintenance  of  roads 
corvee  is  still  in  use,  though  diminishing  in  extent. 
Unfortunately  the  custom  has  become  so  strong  that  it 
is  easy  for  the  minor  officials,  especially  natives,  to  com- 
pel a  certain  amount  of  forced  labour  for  their  own  pri- 
vate benefit.  An  important  and  beneficial  measure,  very 
slow  in  coming,  has  been  the  extension  of  the  railway 
system,  which  now  connects  most  parts  of  Java,  —  the 
external  possessions  being  without  railways  except  a  few 
local  lines  in  Sumatra,  —  and  changes  are  being  made 
in  the  administration  which  will,  it  is  hoped,  not  only 
reduce  expenses  but  add  to  its  effectiveness  by  par- 
tially decentralising  the  government.  Hitherto  the 
"  one-man  show "  has  been  the  universal  method,  and 
it  remains  to  be  seen  if  sufficient  public  spirit  can  be 
stirred  up  to  introduce  a  certain  amount  of  municipal 
legislation. 

Other  signs  of  the  times  are  a  more  liberal  attitude 
towards  foreign  planters  and  the  consequent  extension 


360  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

of  cultivation,  particularly  of  sugar.  Reforms  are  needed 
as  regards  harbour  accommodation  and  many  other  local 
matters  of  great  importance  to  merchants  and  planters 
who,  until  recently  regarded  in  a  somewhat  hostile 
fashion  by  the  local  officials,  found  it  difficult  to  get  a 
hearing.  The  regulation  of  the  Chinese,  who  despite 
all  precautions  have  established  themselves  in  large 
numbers  in  all  the  important  towns,  has  also  exercised 
Government,  and  the  taking  over  of  the  hide  and  opium 
farms  is  a  measure  which  will  probably  be  decidedly 
beneficial.  The  principle  of  the  Government  through- 
out has  been  to  keep  the  Chinese  out  of  the  dessas  or 
villages  as  far  as  possible.  The  regulations  for  this  pur- 
pose have  been  of  late  much  more  strict  and  with  the 
result,  of  course,  of  inconveniencing  the  foreign  trade, 
the  Chinese  element  here  as  elsewhere  being  the  main 
connecting  link  between  importer  and  consumer.  Both 
farms  gave  the  Chinese  not  the  right  but  the  power  of 
interference  in  village  matters,  a  power  which  there  can 
be  little  doubt  was  considerably  abused.  While  it  was 
easy  to  discontinue  the  hide  farm,  the  withdrawal  of  the 
opium  farm  involved  a  large  revenue  and  roused  the 
powerful  opposition  of  the  Chinese.  A  regie  somewhat 
similar  to  that  employed  in  Saigon  has  been  introduced 
and  is  to  be  extended. 

These  are  not  very  large  matters,  but  they  point  to  an 
awakening.  The  Netherlands  Indies  have  been  almost 
asleep  for  ages,  a  ring  fence  being  pat  round  them  and 
a  strictly  conservative  policy  adopted.  Whether  that 
policy  was  best  for  the  native  must  be  decided  by  each 
reader  for  himself.  The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  up 
to  a  certain  point  it  was.  Whether  it  was  good  for  the 
Dutch  themselves  is  a  different  matter,  but  it  must  be 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     361 

remembered  that  the  sturdy  race  who  hailed  from  the 
little  sea-locked  country,  though  far  from  being  among 
the  decaying  nations,  reached  their  high-water  mark  of 
national  life  some  centuries  ago,  and  being  eminently 
sane  and  healthy  have  not  endeavoured  to  struggle 
against  Fate,  but  have  philosophically  accepted  the  situa- 
tion and  tried  simply  to  hold  stolidly  their  position  in  the 
comity  of  nations.  Thus  when  South  Africa  practically 
lay  at  their  feet  they  recognised  that  they  were  not  able 
to  rise  to  further  expansion,  and  the  writer  believes 
that  the  ambitious  policy  of  the  so-called  Dutch  repub- 
lics in  South  Africa  was  largely  due  to  the  infusion  of 
foreign  —  particularly  French  —  blood.  The  Dutch  are 
cautious,  canny,  commercial,  but  not  ambitious. 

There  are  two  dangers,  internal  and  external,  threaten- 
ing this  backwater  in  the  river  of  time.  The  first  has 
been  already  alluded  to  in  the  remarks  about  Eurasians. 
The  preponderance  of  a  coloured  or  half-coloured  class 
in  Netherlands  India  is  becoming  very  marked,  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  tendency  of  European  races  is 
to  degenerate  under  similiar  circumstances.  We  know 
what  happened  in  East  Africa  and  other  Portuguese 
possessions,  and  it  is  only  because  of  the  superior  viril- 
ity of  the  Dutch  that  they  have  better  resisted  the  process 
of  degeneration.  We  have  seen  how  even  the  European 
Dutch,  man  or  woman,  becomes  what  we  call  "  a  little 
slack  "  in  manners  and  appearance  after  residence  in  the 
East,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  intellectual  deterioration 
also  follows.  Even  children  whose  parents  are  both 
white  are  frequently  brought  up  entirely  by  Malay  serv- 
ants, play  with  their  nurse's  children  and  generally 
become  half  native  in  their  ideas  and  consequently  their 
morals. 


362  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

Up  to  the  present  time  Holland  has  been  singularly 
successful  in  preserving  her  Colonial  empire  from  outside 
influences,  but  with  the  recent  developments  in  the 
Pacific  a  change  must  inevitably  come.  The  position  of 
Netherlands  India  between  two  go-ahead  and  flourish- 
ing democracies  —  Australia  and  the  United  States  in  the 
Philippines  —  will  make  it  difficult  to  preserve  the  isola- 
tion and  monopoly  hitherto  maintained  by  the  Dutch,  and 
the  revolutionary  methods  adopted  by  the  United  States 
cannot  be  without  great  influence  on  all  the  other  islands 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  To  educate  eight  million 
Malays  in  the  English  tongue  is  in  itself  a  step  fraught 
with  the  most  far-reaching  consequences,  and  it  seems 
impossible  that  the  Javanese,  Celebeans,  Borneans,  and 
the  many  semi-independent  tribes  of  other  islands  should 
not  be  swept  up  by  the  wave  of  civilisation  which,  for 
good  or  evil,  has  at  length  caught  a  great  part  of  their 
race  on  its  crest  and  is  bearing  them  on  towards  an 
unknown  future.  The  development  of  the  Malay  States 
is  another  comparatively  recent  feature  which  will  by 
degrees  exercise  an  influence  over  other  Malayan  coun- 
tries, and  indeed  on  all  sides  we  see  the  opening  up  of 
countries,  the  emancipation  and  civilisation  of  the  brown 
races,  and  an  increasing  influx  of  Europeans.  Is  Nether- 
lands India  to  be  exempt  —  to  lie  like  a  log  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  great  Pacific  trade  routes  and  not  be  absorbed 
into  the  busy,  bustling,  wide-awake  whole  ?  The  Colonial 
Dutch  are  rapidly  becoming  more  and  more  alienated 
from  their  native  land,  and  a  population  is  springing  up 
which  is  as  little  "  Dutch "  as  the  Spanish  mestizos  of 
the  Philippines  are  Spaniards,  and  these  cannot  be  said 
to  see  eye  to  eye  with  their  rulers.  Nevertheless  Dutch 
phlegm,  combined  with  an  indolence  born  of  the  tropi- 


THE   COLONIAL   DUTCH   AND   THEIR   METHODS     363 

cal  climate,  would  prevent  any  very  strong  Colonial  spirit 
from  growing  up  unless  pressure  occurs  from  outside. 
Such  pressure  is  likely  to  occur  in  the  immediate  future. 
Not  only  will  Britain,  the  United  States,  Japan,  and 
Australasia  enter  into  the  keenest  competition  in  the 
new  fields  of  enterprise  in  the  Pacific,  and  so  cut  away  the 
ground  under  Holland's  feet  and  render  her  slack  tenure 
of  many  islands  precarious,  but  the  ambitions  of  France 
and  Germany  will  further  complicate  the  situation.  If 
the  prosperity  of  the  Javanese  planter  were  to  decline 
who  knows  that  he  might  not  prefer  to  be  under  the  flag 
of  an  enterprising  Power  rather  than  one  whose  creed  is 
"  As  it  was  and  ever  shall  be  ! "  That  Germany  casts 
longing  eyes  in  the  direction  of  the  East  Indies  has  long 
been  an  open  secret,  and  that  she  intends,  sooner  or 
later,  to  swallow  up  her  little  neighbour  in  Europe  every 
one  knows,  but  the  Hollanders  will  take  a  good  deal  of 
swallowing,  despite  the  German  alliance  of  their  Queen 
and  other  circumstances.  The  Colonies  are  another 
thing,  and  we  may  yet  live  to  see  a  Greater  Germany 
in  the  Pacific. 


JAPAN    IN   THE   PACIFIC 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    NEW    JAPAN 

THE  Pacific  Ocean  is  the  arena  for  many  young  Pow- 
ers—  the  young  Australasia,  the  young  America,  the 
new  Russia  in  the  Far  East,  and  not  least  the  new 
Japan.  Again  and  again  in  our  sketches  of  the  terri- 
tories on  the  Pacific  littoral  and  islands  we  have  had  to 
remark  their  recent  and  rapid  growth,  the  springing 
up  of  towns,  and  other  changes  effected  in  the  space  of 
a  few  years.  The  Philippines  under  American  rule 
will  probably  exhibit  similar  phenomena  in  the  way  of 
educational  and  social  development.  The  Dutch  East 
Indies  alone  have  been  hardly  touched  as  yet  by  this 
new  spirit,  but  already  a  faint  troubling  of  the  waters 
is  seen.  Of  all  the  changes  and  developments,  however, 
nothing  is  more  sensational  than  that  of  Japan,  and  in 
the  story  of  the  Pacific  the  new  Japan  will  certainly  play 
a  prominent  part. 

The  writer  has  no  intention  of  dwelling  on  the  subject 
of  Japan's  evolution,  which  has  been  treated  volumi- 
nously and  eruditely  by  many  authors.  He  is  merely 
concerned  with  her  present  political  and  industrial  posi- 
tion, and  more  especially  with  her  recent  departure  in 
Formosa,  of  which  little  as  yet  is  known  to  the  general 
public. 

Japan  astonished  the  world  in  1895  by  the  exhibition 
of  a  highly  organised  military  machine  in  the  Chino- 

367 


368  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Japanese  war,  and  her  record  during  the  recent  opera- 
tions in  China  has  in  every  respect  more  than  upheld 
her  position.  The  assimilative  power  and  high  organis- 
ing ability  of  the  Japanese  becomes  daily  more  and  more 
evident.  In  every  department  —  in  commerce,  in  manu- 
facture, in  military  and  naval  affairs,  even  in  art  —  she 
shows  every  sign  of  being  seized  by  the  restless  activity 
of  the  Western  world  and  of  a  determination  to  meet 
the  West  on  its  own  ground,  to  enter  the  fields  of 
rivalry,  military  and  commercial,  manufacturing  and 
scientific. 

WThile  moribund  China  was  allowing  everything  to 
decay,  living  Japan  was  planning,  organising  every 
branch  of  national  development,  especially  her  manu- 
factures. The  trade  with  China  was  rapidly  increasing 
until  the  recent  troubles.  The  Japanese  exports  to 
China  increased  in  seven  years  (from  1893  to  1900) 
four  and  a  half  fold,  and  the  imports  from  that  country 
nearly  doubled  notwithstanding  the  serious  check  to 
trade  owing  to  the  recent  disorders.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  from  China,  tea  and  silk,  afford  an  apposite 
example.  While  competition  was  growing  in  India  and 
elsewhere,  China,  somnolent  and  fossilised,  was  allowing 
the  quality  of  these  articles  to  degenerate  and  gradually 
lost  her  hold  on  the  trade.  The  value  of  these  exports 
has  not  increased  during  the  last  dozen  years,  the  only  im- 
provement being  in  silk  cocoons  and  manufactured  silk 
piece-goods.  In  contrast  with  this,  the  exports  have  in- 
creased in  Japan  at  a  great  pace  during  the  last  sixteen 
years.  Japan  has  doubled  her  exports  of  silk  in  fourteen 
years,  while  those  of  her  silk  manufactures  from  almost 
nothing  in  1885  have  risen  to  astounding  figures.  So  seri- 
ous was  the  Japanese  production  that  hostile  duties  were 


THE   NEW  JAPAN  369 

established  in  both  the  United  States  and  France.  Cot- 
ton manufactures  have  risen  to  great  figures.1  Tea 
shows  only  a  slight  increase,  due  no  doubt  largely  to 
the  limited  market  for  the  peculiar-flavoured  Japanese 
teas  which  find  favour  only  in  the  United  States  —  five- 
sixths  of  the  growth  goes  there  —  and  to  the  severe  com- 
petition from  India  and  Ceylon.  Coal  exports  have  risen 
to  a  value  of  fifteen  million  yen.  Manufactures  of  wood 
and  bamboos  have  grown  into  an  important  branch  of 
trade,  while  copper,  a  new  industry,  has  increased  greatly. 

Japanese  cotton  goods,  the  raw  material  coming  from 
India,  compete  successfully  with  the  goods  of  China, 
where  raw  material  is  procured  on  the  spot.  Coal, 
though  inferior,  being  smoky  and  burning  quickly,  is 
doing  an  increasing  business  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness, especially  along  the  whole  extent  of  the  Asiatic 
coast.  While  developing  along  the  lines  of  manufacture 
and  commerce,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  in  artistic 
lines  she  has  degenerated  as  regards  quality  and  design. 
Attempts  are  made  to  minimise  the  fact  and  fine  work 
is  still  to  be  had ;  but  the  days  of  the  old  leisured  art 
production,  when  an  artist  only  worked  when  he  had  the 
inspiration,  alas !  those  days  are  gone.  The  cheap  (and 
nasty)  work  which  floods  the  Western  markets  is  pro- 
duced not  because  the  Japanese  like  it,  —  it  revolts  them, 
—  but  on  the  principle  of  ilfaut  vivre. 

The  progress  of  trade  has  been  extraordinary.  Japan 
takes  now  (1900)  ^26,000,000  worth  of  goods  from 
abroad,  as  compared  with  ,£4,500,000  in  1872  and 
;£  1 3,000,000  in  1890.  The  foreign  trade  of  Japan  is 
largely  in  the  hands  of  Britain,  whence  she  gets  most 

1  The  manufacture  of  silk,  cotton,  and  other  textiles  has  risen  from  sixteen 
million  yen  in  1886  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  million  yen. 


THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


of  her  cotton  and  linen  goods,  four-fifths  of  her  machin- 
ery and  wrought-iron  and  over  half  of  her  woollens,  and 
the  United  States  comes  an  easy  second.1  But  Britain 
is  relatively  losing  ground,  and  is  far  outstripped  by  the 
progress  of  the  United  States  and  Germany.  In  carry- 
ing, German  tonnage  has  increased  more  than  twelvefold 
(against  the  British  five)  and  has  risen  from  the  posi- 
tion of  one-nineteenth  to  that  of  one-ninth  of  the  whole. 
The  subsidised  German  system  is  about  to  be  followed  by 
another  and  more  serious  competitor,  the  United  States, 
who  are  establishing  new  subsidised  lines  with  steamers 
of  the  largest  freight-carrying  capacity  under  the  national 
flag,  and  working  in  conjunction  with  the  trans-con- 
tinental railways.  Both  these  countries  enjoy  preferential 
rates  by  railway  to  the  ports  of  shipment,  which  confer 
a  great  advantage  over  their  British  competitors.  Both, 
too,  are  preparing  for  other  and  more  systematic  endeav- 
ours to  develop  their  trade  with  Japan  and  the  whole 
Far  East. 

The  large  excess  of  imports  over  exports  (now  six 
million  yen)  is  stated  by  Japanese  to  be  largely  due 
to  the  demand  for  machinery  for  improving  their  native 


million  yen 


11899 

IMPORTS  FROM 

EXPORTS 

TO 

Australia 

about    if  million  yen 

Australia    .    about 

2 

Belgium 

•     •       5 

Belgium      .     .     . 

i 

British  India 

.     .     44 

British  India    .     . 

6 

China 

.     .     28 

China     .... 

40 

France    .     . 

.     .      6 

France   .... 

29 

Germany 

•     •     17 

Germany     . 

4 

Great  Britain 

.     .     45 

Great  Britain  .     . 

ii 

Hong  Kong 

•     •       7 

Hong  Kong 

34 

Russian  Asia 

•     •      41      ' 

Russian  Asia    . 

2* 

United  States 

.     .     38        "         " 

United  States  .     . 

64 

IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


British  Empire 
United  States  . 


97 
38 


British  Empire 
United  States  . 


55 
64 


THE   NEW  JAPAN  371 

manufactures,  and  to  this  may  also  be  added  the 
iron,  machinery,  and  appliances  for  naval  construction. 
The  Japanese  Government  is  quite  alive  to  the  disad- 
vantages attaching  to  this  balance  against  Japan  and  all 
possible  steps  will  be  taken  to  minimise  the  evil.  There 
can  be  no  question  that  the  Japanese  mean  to  adopt  the 
only  plan  for  reducing  the  balance,  and  that  is  so  far  as 
possible  themselves  to  make,  in  rapidly  increasing  quan- 
tity, everything  necessary,  whether  for  manufactures  or 
naval  purposes.  Their  chief  ambition,  and  a  perfectly 
legitimate  one,  is  to  become  more  and  more  independent 
of  foreign  sources. 

Such  rapid  development  in  a  country  like  Japan  could 
only  be  accomplished  by  enormous  efforts  and  sacrifices. 
The  expenditure  involved  by  numerous  reforms,  many  of 
them  unproductive,  was  at  first  partially  met  by  the 
Chinese  indemnity.  This  exhausted,  Japan  has  had 
to  pass  through  a  severe  financial  crisis,  and  despite 
the  attempt  made  to  "save  face"  there  is  no  doubt  that 
she  has  been  seriously  affected  by  the  scarcity  of  money. 
She  has,  however,  been  able  to  carry  through  the  more 
ambitious  of  her  schemes,  and  will  now  be  able  by  a 
more  normal  expenditure  to  regain  her  balance  unless 
forced  into  another  war.  Hitherto  she  has  been  averse 
to  hypothecating  any  of  her  assets  to  foreigners,  but  now 
that  she  believes  herself  in  a  position  to  hold  her  own 
she  is  permitting  the  introduction  of  foreign  capital  with 
a  view  to  developing  her  internal  resources.  This  action 
seems  to  be  leading  her  towards  a  dangerous  path,  for 
the  Trust  has  made  its  appearance  in  Japan,  and  the 
American  invasion  is  introducing  some  other  elements 
which  may  prove  troublesome  in  the  future. 

The  density  of  Japan's  population  is  remarkable,  being 


372  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

twice  that  of  France,  and  showing  an  increase  of  300,000 
per  annum.  Moreover,  the  area  for  cultivation  is  ex- 
tremely restricted  and  is  already  almost  entirely  taken 
up  in  the  central  and  southern  islands,  while  in  moun- 
tainous Yezo  the  land  is  poor  and  the  cultivable  area 
small.  These  circumstances  inevitably  drive  the  people 
into  the  large  manufacturing  towns,  and  the  necessity  for 
providing  work  for  them  is  another  stimulus  to  the  in- 
dustrial schemes  of  the  Government.  The  closing  of 
America  and  Australia  to  the  Japanese  bars  emigration 
except  to  her  own  colony  of  Formosa,  and,  as  will  be 
shown  later,  that  island  does  not  offer  exceptional  ad- 
vantages. 

It  is  difficult  for  any  one  who  has  not  seen  the  Japan- 
ese at  home  to  realise  the  extreme,  though  graceful, 
poverty  of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Our  own  work- 
ing-classes are  rich  in  comparison.  The  annual  expenses 
of  an  average  peasant  family  may  be  taken  at  about  ^"9 
or  less.  The  dainty  house,  with  its  paper  screens,  white 
matting,  a  few  flat  cushions  and  cooking  utensils,  is  in- 
trinsically worth  little  more  than  a  few  shillings.  The 
birdlike  meals  consist  of  a  few  morsels  of  fish,  rice,  and 
vegetables,  with  innumerable  tiny  cups  of  pale  straw- 
coloured  tea.  The  whole  menage  is  proverbially  sug- 
gestive of  a  doll's  house,  and  yet  the  Japanese  coolie 
is  stout  and  sturdy,  and  can  carry  weights  and  drag  loads 
at  which  many  a  British  workman  would  look  askance, 
while  the  mechanics  are  diligent  and  skilful,  the  artists 
unrivalled,  the  tradespeople  busy  and  polite  —  all  on  a 
meagre  fare  which  Europeans  would  characterise  as 
"  rubbish."  Japanese  soldiers  and  sailors  on  a  fare  little 
better  than  this  are  able  to  support  fatigue  in  a  way 
that  astonished  their  European  companions  in  arms 


THE   NEW   JAPAN  373 

during  the  recent  campaign.  Truly  these  are  a  wonder- 
ful little  people,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  Western  civil- 
isation will  not  sap  the  vitality  which  seems  to  be  the 
outcome  of  centuries  of  low  living  and  high  thinking. 
Luxury  is  creeping  in,  the  rates  of  living  have  gone  up, 
and  Japanese  who  have  once  taken  to  European  dress  and 
food  cannot  afterwards  do  without  them.  Many  of  the 
wiser  heads  are  being  shaken  over  all  this,  and  already  a 
reaction  has  set  in  and  an  attempt  is  being  made  to  distin- 
guish between  false  and  true  progress.  Recent  visitors 
to  Japan  must  have  noticed  a  great  change  in  the  almost 
universal  return  of  the  people  to  their  national  dress. 
Several  years  ago  the  streets  were  full  of  travestied  Euro- 
pean costumes,  but  a  better  sense  has  prevailed,  notwith- 
standing the  adherence  of  the  Court  to  the  hideous 
European  style.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  revert  to 
the  true  Japanese  artistic  methods,  but  still  it  is  much 
to  be  feared  that  a  people  who  have  once  lost  the 
keen  edge  of  their  aesthetic  perceptions  so  far  as  to  pro- 
duce shoals  of  inferior  and  shoddy  work,  can  never  again 
be  the  exquisite  artists  they  were.  Every  one  who  visits 
Kioto,  the  ancient  capital  of  Japan  and  one  of  the  most 
interesting  cities  in  the  Empire,  must  have  a  painful 
memory  of  his  first  visit  to  one  of  the  great  china  manu- 
factories. The  bowing,  smiling  attendant,  speaking  per- 
fect English  but  clad,  thank  goodness,  in  a  grey  and 
black  kimono,  slides  back  a  panel  and  one  enters  a  room 
stacked  on  every  side  with  jars  of  grotesque  shapes  deco- 
rated with  blue,  green,  and  purple  dragons  and  chrysan- 
themums, as  bright  and  garish  as  paint  and  gold  leaf  can 
make  them.  In  answer  to  remonstrances  and  questions 
the  polite  Japanese,  still  smiling,  replies  that  English  and 
American  people  generally  like  these  things  —  they  are 


374  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

made  chiefly  for  Chicago  —  and  of  course  Japanese  people 
do  not  have  them  in  their  houses.  A  little  later,  seated 
on  the  matting  in  a  bare  but  beautiful  room,  the  sliding 
panels  pushed  back  to  reveal  a  tiny  garden  decorated 
with  fountain,  bridge,  and  little  temple  on  a  mimic 
hill,  we  are  shown  one  by  one  real  artistic  treasures  of 
finest  workmanship  and  exquisite  design,  each  jar  in  its 
own  silk  covering  and  beautifully  made  box. 

What  may  be  the  fate  of  art  in  Japan  when  that  country 
becomes  a  huge  manufacturing  depot  it  is  hard  to  say, 
but  the  manual  dexterity  of  the  Japanese  will  stand  them 
in  good  stead,  and  unless  modern  methods  grind  away 
the  workman's  individual  interest  in  his  productions  the 
artistic  manufactures  of  Japan  will  continue  to  increase 
and  surpass  those  of  other  nations.  In  more  utilitarian 
branches  Japan,  with  modern  machinery  and  cheap 
labour,  will  be  able  to  hold  her  own  against  the  world. 
Technical  schools  organised  on  the  German  pattern  and 
equal  to  the  best  in  that  country  are  established  already, 
and  are  attended  by  thousands  of  mechanics,  desirous 
of  learning  modern  methods,  who  some  years  hence  will 
constitute  a  formidable  body.  It  is  rather  sad,  if  inevi- 
table, to  realise  that  Japan  must  become  utilitarian  if 
she  is  to  retain  her  position,  and  it  is  not  without  regret 
that  one  sees  such  towns  as  Osaka,  for  instance,  once 
known  as  the  picturesque  Venice  of  Japan,  now  domi- 
nated by  hundreds  of  tall  smoky  chimneys  and  present- 
ing an  appearance  not  unlike  that  of  Bradford  or  some 
other  English  manufacturing  town.  Cotton  mills  and 
other  factories  are  found  everywhere ;  glass-blowing  (a 
new  art  for  Japan)  has  been  successfully  founded ; 
breweries  abound ;  brushes  are  largely  exported  (chiefly 
to  the  United  States) ;  iron  founderies  and  shipyards 


THE   NEW  JAPAN  375 

have  been  built,  where  large  vessels  are  now  turned  out ; 
a  new  harbour  at  Osaka  is  in  course  of  construction ; 
match-making  is  already  an  enormous  industry,  and  the 
trade  embraces  all  parts  of  the  East.  Hideous  Western 
advertisements  are  scattered  over  the  country,  even  in 
the  Inland  Sea. 

Japan  has  hitherto  adopted  a  protectionist  policy  as 
necessary  for  the  pushing  of  her  new  manufactures, 
and  she  has  also  by  means  of  heavy  subsidies  to  steam- 
ship lines  increased  that  protection.  It  is  not  likely 
that  she  will  reduce  this,  and  it  may  be  increased, 
until  Japan's  trade  is  absolutely  established.  The  tariffs 
recently  enacted  against  Japanese  (among  other  foreign 
goods)  in  Australia,  the  United  States,  and  France  will 
probably  lead  to  retaliatory  measures.  In  Formosa,  it  is 
to  be  noted,  a  tariff  of  10  per  cent,  ad  valorem  on  imports 
was  imposed  by  Japan  after  the  conquest  of  the  island. 

Japan's  political  position  is  at  the  present  moment  a 
difficult  one.  When  she  first  began  her  programme  of 
reform  and  development  she  counted  on  the  assistance 
of  more  than  one  of  the  Great  Powers,  if  need  should 
arise.  She  has  been  roughly  disillusioned,  for  the  evi- 
dent desire  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  has 
been  merely  to  push  her  into  the  gap  which  they  could 
not  conveniently  fill  themselves.  Thus  she  has  been 
forced  to  watch  the  gradual  encroachments  of  Russia  and 
Germany  upon  China  and  the  disintegration  of  that  Em- 
pire itself.  The  only  point  on  which,  with  or  without 
assistance,  she  is  resolved  to  stand  is  Korea,  and  if  the 
partition  of  China  should  ever  be  carried  into  effect  she 
will  take  care  to  get  her  share.  At  the  crucial  point  of 
the  recent  occurrences  in  the  Far  East,  Japan  would 
have  gone  to  considerable  lengths  to  preserve  the  integ- 


376  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

rity  of  China  while  establishing  international  trade  with 
that  Empire.  Such  a  denouement  would  have  been  far 
more  advantageous  to  her  than  the  present  settlement,  or 
rather  lack  of  settlement,  by  which  Russia  chiefly  is  bene- 
fited. Unfortunately  the  two  other  Powers  whose  inter- 
ests were  identical  with  Japan's  were  both  occupied 
elsewhere,  and  unwilling  to  embark  on  an  active  policy. 
They  were  only  willing,  as  has  been  said  before,  to 
thrust  "  gallant  little  Japan  "  into  the  breach,  but  she 
is  well  aware  that  a  serious  misunderstanding  with  Russia 
which  might  lead  to  war  would  probably  be  disastrous  at 
this  crisis  of  her  affairs. 

Her  wisest  course,  therefore,  and  one  that  in  the 
writer's  opinion  she  is  bent  on  following  for  the  present, 
is  to  sit  still,  rehabilitate  her  finances,  develop  her  re- 
sources, and  practise  economy  within  reasonable  limits; 
and  finally  to  wait  for  something  to  turn  up,  for  in 
politics,  as  in  other  games  of  mingled  skill  and  chance, 
it  is  the  unexpected  that  happens. 

In  the  struggle  for  the  mastery  of  the  Pacific,  Japan, 
unless  hampered  by  another  costly  war,  will  be  a  serious 
rival  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  in  the  newly 
opened  markets  and  will  run  Germany  close  in  the 
effort  to  gain  a  large  share  of  the  carrying  trade.  Japan- 
ese steamers  both  for  freight  and  passengers  are  now 
plying  to  London,  Hamburg,  and  Australia,  and  a  pro- 
posal is  being  made  for  lines  in  connection  with  the 
great  American  trans-continental  railways,  which  would 
enjoy  the  advantage  of  preferential  rates  and  thus  be  in 
a  superior  position  to  British  lines.  This  proposal  is 
partially  the  result  of  American  and  German  schemes 
for  subsidised  lines  in  the  Pacific,  against  which  Japan 
is  determined  to  compete.  The  heavy  subsidies  granted 


THE   NEW   JAPAN  377 

to  the  Japanese  lines  enable  them  to  carry  passengers 
and  freight  at  considerably  reduced  rates,  and  the 
writer  can  testify  to  the  excellence  of  the  boats  and 
the  comfort  of  their  arrangements ;  while  the  substitution 
of  Japanese  stewards  and  servants  is  a  distinct  gain  on 
the  side  of  courtesy  and  attention,  and  Japanese  sailors 
inspire  much  more  sense  of  security  than  do  the  Lascars 
seen  on  the  chief  British  lines. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  of  the 
recent  developments  of  Japan,  however,  centres  round 
her  annexation  of  the  island  of  Formosa  and  the  influ- 
ence it  will  have  on  the  future  of  the  Pacific ;  and  this  ex- 
periment in  Oriental  colonisation  is  so  interesting  that  a 
chapter  must  be  devoted  exclusively  to  the  subject. 


JAPANESE   CHILDREN 


TAKAU,    FORMOSA 


CHAPTER   XV 

FORMOSA  I    JAPANESE    AS    COLONISTS 

FORMOSA,  which  is  now  of  peculiar  interest  as  the 
scene  of  the  first  Oriental  attempt  at  modern  colonisa- 
tion (the  Chinese  occupied  it  almost  as  part  of  China 
.and  did  little  with  it),  is  in  reality  a  part  of  the  Asiatic 
continent,  from  which  it  was  broken  off  at  some  remote 
period.  A  shallow  strait,  eighty  miles  wide  in  the  nar- 
rowest part,  separates  it  from  China,  and  the  side  of  the 
island  facing  the  mainland  is  low-lying  and  shallow, 
while  the  east  coast  is  lined  from  north  to  south  by 
coast  ranges,  part  of  the  high  central  mountain  system, 
which  is  of  volcanic  origin.  The  Pacific  coast,  there- 
fore, presents  an  almost  impenetrable  barrier  and 
contains  no  real  harbours,  while  the  monsoons  which 
at  certain  seasons  dash  against  it  render  navigation 

378 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE   AS   COLONISTS  379 

extremely  dangerous.  A  terrible  coast  this  for  wrecks, 
and  a  terrible  fate  hitherto  awaited  the  unfortunate 
sailors  cast  on  these  inhospitable  shores;  and  yet  it  was 
this  rock-bound  coast  which  gave  Formosa  its  name  of 
"  the  Beautiful,"  a  sobriquet  hard  to  be  understood  by 
the  traveller  who  knows  only  the  flat  western  plains. 
Those  who  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  skirt  the 
east  of  the  island  agree  that  the  scenery  is  among  the 
sights  of  the  world.  Cliffs  rising  sheer  from  the  water 
to  a  height  of  7000  feet,  ragged  crags,  slender  spires, 
polished  domes,  —  all  the  weird  fantasies  of  rock- 
construction, —  are  clothed  in  rich  vegetation  which 
hangs  like  a  curtain  over  the  rough  broken  out- 
lines. Silver  streams  fall  in  cascades  from  giddy  heights, 
rushing  cataracts  foam  into  mountain  streams  and  cut 
their  way  through  dark  ravines.  Through  some  sudden 
cleft  one  gets  a  glimpse  of  green  valleys  and  nestling 
villages.  The  whole  scene  is  of  wild  and  romantic 
beauty  and  justifies  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Portuguese 
discoverers. 

There  are  practically  no  good  harbours  in  the  island. 
Keelung  and  Tamsui  on  the  north  are  situated  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  and  the  former  is  being  rendered 
serviceable  at  great  expenditure,  but  neither  are  satis- 
factory. Anping,  the  harbour  of  the  capital  Tainan-fu, 
situated  on  the  edge  of  the  great  western  plain,  is  shal- 
low and  without  shelter,  and  is  moreover  being  gradu- 
ally filled  up.  Old  Dutch  pictures  of  the  seventeenth 
century  show  their  ships  tied  up  to  the  shore  at  Tainan, 
which  is  now  several  miles  inland,  and  Anping,  where  the 
old  Dutch  Fort  Zeelandia  stood,  was  then  an  island. 
On  the  south  is  Takau,  where  landing  through  the 
surf  in  catamarans  is  one  of  the  least  pleasant  experi- 


380  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

ences  that  awaits  the  visitor.  These  four  ports  already 
named  are  the  principal  and  in  fact  the  only  important 
towns  in  Formosa,  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes  they 
are  Chinese ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  interior,  including 
practically  all  the  mountain  country,  is  in  the  possession 
of  tribes,  either  aboriginal  and  savage  or  semi-civilised 
and  of  mixed  race.  The  latter  are  known  to  the  Chinese 
as  Pepo-hwan  and  are  a  very  useful  part  of  the  popu- 
lation, being  settled  for  the  most  part  on  the  lower 
terraces  or  upland  valleys,  while  the  wilder  tribes  live  in 
the  mountains.  Who  and  what  these  aborigines  are  is 
a  subject  very  much  debated,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  hitherto  they  have  not  received  much  really  scien- 
tific attention.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  display 
great  dissimilarity  in  different  parts  of  the  island,  but 
not  more  than  might  be  expected  when  we  remember 
the  proximity  of  Formosa  to  China,  the  Philippines,  and 
Japan,  and  the  position  of  the  island  in  the  centre  of 
the  typhoon  district  which  naturally  led  to  frequent 
involuntary  immigration  on  the  part  of  sailors  of  various 
nationalities.  Although  a  great  number  of  these  were 
killed,  yet  there  are  evidences  of  intermarriage,  for 
instance  in  the  Amias  tribe,  whose  traditions  say  that 
they  are  descended  from  a  shipwrecked  crew  of  white 
men  who  were  allowed  to  settle  on  condition  that  their 
descendants  should  always  remain  in  servitude.  The 
modern  Amias,  while  practically  free,  acknowledges  a 
sort  of  social  inferiority  to  the  other  natives.  The  most 
reasonable  hypothesis  is  that  the  aboriginal  stock  is  the 
same  as  that  found  largely  in  Borneo  and  the  Philip- 
pines,—  pre-Malay,  —  and  this  supposition  is  borne  out 
by  several  significant  facts.  There  are  few,  if  any, 
Arabian  or  Hindoo  words  found  in  the  native  vocabu- 


FORMOSA:  JAPANESE  AS  COLONISTS  381 

laries,  which  makes  it  certain  that  they  must  date  back 
to  a  very  remote  period  in  Malayan  history.  The  For- 
mosans  practise  head-hunting,  have  a  tradition  of  the 
first  man  and  woman,  are  peculiarly  sensitive  to  all 
omens,  but  especially  those  connected  with  bird  cries, 
and  in  many  other  respects  resemble  strongly  the  Dyaks 
of  Borneo  and  other  pre-Malay  tribes.  Their  features 
vary  in  different  tribes,  but  are  seldom  of  the  Mongo- 
lian type,  the  round  eyes,  straight  features,  and  general 
cast  of  countenance  being  much  more  allied  to  the 
Caucasian.  Many  of  them  recognise  this  fact,  and 
treated  the  first  Europeans  they  saw  as  kinsmen  in 
contrast  with  the  Chinese,  whom  they  regarded  as 
interlopers.  The  men  of  these  wild  tribes  are  occupied 
in  hunting,  fishing,  and  shooting,  in  all  of  which  they 
excel,  and  their  women,  as  is  the  case  in  all  Malay  lands, 
are  beasts  of  burden,  carrying  on  not  only  the  work 
of  the  household  but  such  manufactures  and  agriculture 
as  are  necessary  for  raiment  and  food. 

The  true  savages  of  the  hills  have  hitherto  resisted 
any  attempt  at  taming  them.  They  are  not  on  the 
whole  a  ferocious  or  wicked  people,  but  are  extremely 
tenacious  of  their  rights.  Although  some  of  the  tribes 
live  in  neatly  constructed  villages,  the  houses  built  of 
bamboo,  or  even  of  stone  roofed  with  slate,  the  more 
savage  seem  to  have  lost  the  art  of  house-building  and, 
in  curious  contrast  to  the  aborigines  of  all  islands  of  the 
Malay  archipelago,  dig  holes  in  the  earth  to  live  in.  The 
Dyak  invariably  constructs  his  dwelling  on  high  wooden 
piles  or  among  the  branches  of  trees. 

The  mixed  race,  or  Pepo-hwan,  is  spoken  of  in  favour- 
able terms  by  missionaries  and  others  who  live  amongst 
them.  They  exhibit  an  open  and  guileless  disposition 


382  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

which  they  certainly  do  not  owe  to  the  Mongolian  side 
of  their  ancestry.  Two  of  them,  it  is  said,  were  once 
disputing  over  the  division  of  three  dollars,  which  was 
their  joint  property.  They  could  not  devise  a  means  by 
which  it  should  be  equally  shared  —  they  took  a  dollar 
each,  but  the  odd  one  lay  in  the  road  and  baffled  them. 
Along  came  a  Chinaman  to  whom  they  eagerly  appealed, 
and  he  promised  to  settle  the  matter.  Taking  the  three 
dollars  he  handed  them  one  each  and  pocketed  the  odd 
one.  The  two  Pepo-hwan  went  on  their  way  delighted 
by  this  simple  way  out  of  their  difficulty. 

The  confusion  of  races  and  tongues  in  Formosa  has 
been  complicated  by  the  immigration  of  Chinese  both 
from  north  and  south  who  speak  distinct  dialects.  From 
the  adjacent  province  of  Fukien  the  stream  of  immigra- 
tion must  have  been  more  or  less  constant  for  centu- 
ries; and  although  tradition  says  that  the  Chinese  did 
not  "discover"  Formosa  till  1403,  it  seems  extremely 
unlikely  that  no  intercourse  should  have  taken  place 
before  that  date,  since  the  Formosan  mountains  and 
even  the  coast-line  are  clearly  visible  from  the  mainland 
in  clear  weather.  The  Fukien  people  are  called  in  For- 
mosa Hok-los,  and  they  occupy  all  the  west  coast  and 
alluvial  plain  from  north  to  south,  while  on  their  borders, 
in  the  villages  between  the  lower  ranges,  are  the  Hak- 
kas,  or  "  strangers,"  who  are  from  North  China  and  speak 
a  dialect  of  mandarin  or  Court  Chinese.  These  were 
originally  emigrants  from  their  own  country  to  the  pros- 
perous southern  province  of  Kwangtung  (Canton),  where 
they  lived  in  a  state  of  continual  warfare  with  the  natives, 
and  were  at  length  forcibly  expelled,  slaughtered,  or 
driven  across  to  Formosa.  They  are  clever  and  indus- 
trious but  turbulent. 


FORMOSA:    JAPANESE   AS  COLONISTS  383 

The  real  history  of  Formosa  begins  with  the  advent 
of  the  Dutch  in  1624.  Some  two  years  previously  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  had  established  itself  on 
the  group  of  islands  between  Formosa  and  the  mainland 
known  as  the  Pescadores.  Driven  thence  by  the  ob- 
jections of  the  Chinese,  they  established  themselves  at 
Tainan  and  gradually  extended  their  authority  until  it 
practically  included  the  whole  west  coast.  They  found 
a  considerable  population  of  semi-civilised  aborigines, 
and  were  extremely  successful  in  their  missionary  labours 
which  were  begun  on  a  large  scale.  The  increased  pros- 
perity of  this  part  of  the  island,  however,  drew  to  For- 
mosa a  large  number  of  Chinese,  and  finally  attracted 
the  notice  of  that  remarkable  free-lance  known  to  Eu- 
rope as  Koxinga.  He  had  been  for  some  time  in  revolt 
against  the  Tartar  dynasty  which  had  just  seized  the 
Dragon  throne.  Hard  pressed  by  the  Manchus,  he  de- 
termined to  establish  himself  in  Formosa,  and  in  1660 
collected  a  large  fleet  of  junks  with  which  he  laid  siege 
to  Fort  Zeelandia,  as  the  Dutch  had  called  their  princi- 
pal settlement.  The  story  of  this  epoch  in  Formosan 
history  is  interwoven  with  that  of  Japan,  for  it  was  just 
before  this  that  the  emperor  of  Japan,  alarmed  by  the 
progress  being  made  by  the  Christian  religion  in  his 
empire,  decreed  its  persecution  and  extermination,  drove 
out  the  missionaries,  and  only  allowed  European  traders 
to  reside  on  the  island  of  Desima  on  the  most  degrading 
conditions.  The  Dutch  East  India  Company  alone 
agreed  to  these  terms,  and  it  was  in  the  hope  of  propiti- 
ating Japan  that  they  began  to  discountenance  the  work 
going  on  in  Formosa.  This  was  only  one  of  the  wheels 
within  wheels  which  was  crippling  the  power  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company.  The  result  was  that  in  the  hour 


384  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

of  need  no  help  was  sent  to  the  unfortunate  colony  and 
that,  after  a  siege  of  nine  months,  Fort  Zeelandia  was 
compelled  to  surrender.  The  twin  fortress  of  Providen- 
tia  had  been  captured  some  time  before  and  its  defend- 
ers put  to  the  sword,  but  the  Governor  and  survivors  in 
Fort  Zeelandia  were  allowed  to  depart  in  the  one  ship 
that  remained  to  them.  On  reaching  Batavia  the  unfor- 
tunate Governor  was  arraigned  for  having  surrendered 
so  valuable  a  colony,  and  perished  miserably  in  exile. 
All  the  Dutch  missionaries  and  schoolmasters  scattered 
throughout  Formosa  were  cruelly  put  to  death,  and  a 
large  number  of  their  converts  tortured  and  killed,  while 
others  fled  to  more  remote  districts  of  the  mountains, 
where  their  descendants  may  still  be  found  cherishing 
the  memory  of  the  Dutch,  and  treasuring  documents 
handed  down  from  the  time  of  their  brief  occupation. 
Koxinga's  family  remained  in  possession  till  the  third 
generation,  and  the  only  event  of  interest  for  some  years 
was  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  English  East  India 
Company  to  establish  factories  at  Tainan.  The  son 
of  Koxinga  had  issued  a  general  invitation  to  foreigners 
to  come  and  trade  with  his  kingdom,  but  apparently 
he  was  not  prepared  to  do  much  to  forward  their  inter- 
ests, for  after  a  very  short  period  the  Company  sent 
peremptory  orders  that  their  servants  should  leave  the 
island.  Koxinga's  grandson  did  not  feel  equal  to  the 
task  of  governing  Formosa,  and  therefore  made  his 
submission  to  the  court  of  Peking,  or  as  is  perhaps 
more  probable,  he  went  on  a  mission  to  the  court  and 
was  never  suffered  to  return.  In  any  case  he  was  made 
a  hereditary  noble  with  the  title  of  "  Duke  of  the  Sea- 
realm,"  and  his  descendants  and  those  of  the  Manchu  dy- 
nasty are  said  to  be  the  only  hereditary  nobles  in  China. 


FORMOSA   SAVAGES 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE  AS  COLONISTS  385 

For  administrative  purposes  Formosa  became  part 
of  the  province  of  Fukien,  being  divided  into  pre- 
fectures and  governed  from  Fuchau.  Continual  war- 
fare was  waged  between  the  Chinese  and  aborigines, 
but,  while  the  intermediate  tribes  in  many  cases  sub- 
mitted and  adopted  the  Chinese  dress  and  queue,  the 
hill  tribes  remained  absolutely  independent  and  kept 
up  little  intercourse  with  their  neighbours,  only  descend- 
ing from  their  fastnesses  to  capture  heads  or  indulge 
in  one  of  their  numerous  clan  fights.  Missionary  ef- 
forts were  recommenced  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  by  the  Jesuits,  who  found  remnants 
of  Dutch  teaching  among  the  aborigines ;  but  no  other 
intercourse  with  the  outside  world  took  place  until, 
in  1842,  two  ill-fated  British  ships  were  driven  by 
weather  to  take  refuge  on  the  north  coast.  Their  un- 
fortunate crews  and  passengers  (numbering  in  all  one 
hundred  and  ninety-seven)  were  taken  to  Tainan-fu, 
kept  in  imprisonment  four  months,  and  then  led  out 
to  the  great  north  gate  of  the  city  and  decapitated. 
This  event,  happening  just  after  the  Treaty  of  Nan- 
king, led  to  a  great  outburst  of  feeling  amongst  Euro- 
peans in  China,  but  was  overlooked  by  the  British 
Government  after  an  expression  of  regret  from  Peking 
and  the  nominal  punishment  of  the  guilty  Formosan 
officials. 

After  the  war  between  Great  Britain  and  China,  which 
culminated  in  1860  in  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin,  two  For- 
mosan ports,  Takau  and  Tamsui,  were  thrown  open  to 
foreign  trade  in  accordance  with  provisions  in  that  treaty, 
and  British  subjects  and  missionaries  were  to  be  allowed 
safe-conducts  in  the  island.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
European  trade  and  very  soon  at  both  these  ports,  and 

2C 


386  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

also  at  Keelung  and  Tainan-fu,  European  bungalows, 
warehouses,  and  mission  stations  sprang  up.  The  Do- 
minicans and  Jesuits  were  already  at  work,  the  English 
Presbyterian  mission  began  at  Tainan-fu  and  the  Cana- 
dian Presbyterians  at  Tamsui. 

A  significant  incident  took  place  in  1874,  when,  as 
China  refused  to  take  responsibility  or  pay  compensation 
for  the  murder  of  a  shipwrecked  Japanese  boat  crew  on 
the  east  coast,  Japan  fitted  out  an  expedition  and,  land- 
ing on  the  south  coast  of  the  island,  inflicted  chastise- 
ment on  the  natives.  China  was  at  once  alarmed  and 
protested  loudly,  but  the  Japanese  only  withdrew  on  the 
payment  of  a  heavy  indemnity  and  a  guarantee  against 
such  occurrences  in  the  future. 

After  this  affair  some  attempt  was  made  by  the  Chi- 
nese to  really  subdue  and  open  up  the  island,  but  road- 
making  and  railways,  the  best  of  pacificators,  were  beyond 
their  powers.  Accounts  differ  very  much  as  to  the 
methods  employed  in  subduing  the  natives  —  one  story 
being  that,  among  other  brilliant  ideas,  the  Chinese  im- 
ported tigers  from  the  mainland  to  thin  the  numbers  of 
the  aborigines,  while  other  witnesses  claim  that  very  few 
harsh  measures  were  employed.  The  beginning  of  a 
railway  which  was  to  run  all  down  the  west  of  the  island 
was  one  of  the  most  beneficial  measures ;  telegraphs 
were  introduced,  roads  were  begun,  and  the  island  was 
re-portioned  out  into  prefectures  and  counties,  and  some 
effort  made  to  secure  law  and  order. 

During  the  Franco-Chinese  war,  in  1885,  Formosa 
was  blockaded  by  the  fleet  of  France,  Keelung  and 
Tamsui  were  bombarded,  and  there  seemed  a  chance 
that  the  debatable  island  might  fall  altogether  into  her 
hands.  France  indeed  more  than  once  "  nibbled,"  as  the 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE   AS   COLONISTS  387 

saying  is,  at  Formosa,  but  took  no  decisive  step.  Under 
these  circumstances  Japan  during  the  Chino-Japanese 
war,  in  1895,  fixed  her  mind  firmly  on  the  island  and  its 
attendant  Pescadores,  the  value  of  which  will  hereafter 
be  made  plain.  The  story  of  the  war  and  its  denouement, 
the  Treaty  of  Shimosekei,  are  too  well  known  to  need 
recapitulation.  Japan,  warned  off  the  Liaotung  penin- 
sula by  Russia,  France,  and  Germany,  had  to  fall  back  on 
Formosa.  The  Chinese  had  called  in  the  banditti  known 
as  "  Black  Flags  "  to  aid  them  in  defending  the  island, 
and  during  the  hiatus  between  the  formal  handing  over 
of  authority  to  Japan  at  the  end  of  May  1895,  and  the 
actual  appearance  of  the  new  masters  on  the  scene 
(except  in  the  north)  some  months  later,  great  disorder 
prevailed  and  much  suffering  was  the  consequence. 

A  republic  was  proclaimed  by  the  "  Black  Flags  "  in 
Tainan-fu,  but  no  resistance  was  made  when  the  Japan- 
ese army  at  last  appeared  after  having  fought  its  way 
through  much  opposition  from  north  to  south.  The 
people  had  been  taught  by  the  mandarinate  and  literati 
to  expect  great  barbarism  from  the  Japanese,  so  much 
so  that  at  one  place  alone  forty  girls  drowned  themselves 
rather  than  fall  into  their  hands.  Much  has  been  said 
of  the  cruelties  practised  by  the  conquering  army,  but 
unprejudiced  observers  agree  that,  taking  all  things  into 
consideration  —  the  victorious  march  of  a  conquering 
army,  the  wild  nature  of  some  of  the  people  encoun- 
tered, and  the  novelty  of  the  whole  expedition  —  the 
Japanese  commanders  behaved  with  moderation,  the 
majority  of  officers  doing  all  they  could  to  restrain  their 
men.  Without  wishing  to  act  in  any  way  as  the  apolo- 
gist of  the  Japanese  the  writer  is  forced,  in  view  of  the 
behaviour  of  the  allied  troops  during  recent  events  in 


388  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

North  China,  to  argue  that  if  such  excesses  were  com- 
mitted by  white  soldiers  with  their  presumably  higher 
standards  of  morality  and  humanity,  we  must  not  judge 
too  severely  the  conduct  of  the  Japanese  in  Formosa. 

In  the  period  just  after  the  Japanese  had  possessed 
themselves  of  the  country,  the  people  were  so  much  in 
awe  of  their  new  masters  as  to  attempt  no  kind  of  disturb- 
ances. But  towards  the  close  of  1896  discontented 
spirits  became  bolder,  and  there  was  something  like  a 
partial  rebellion,  especially  in  the  region  of  Western 
Formosa  midway  between  north  and  south  (it  cannot 
be  called  the  central  region,  because  the  eastern  half  of 
Formosa  is  mountainous  and  uninhabited  except  by  sav- 
ages). In  the  suppression  of  this  rebellion  great  reckless- 
ness and  injustice  were  displayed,  the  rebels  (or  rather 
the  banditti)  escaping  to  the  hills,  while  the  villages  in 
which  they  had  temporarily  harboured  were  burned,  and 
the  inhabitants,  often  quite  innocent,  suffered  loss  both 
of  property  and  life.  There  was  a  good  deal  of  com- 
ment at  the  time  in  the  Japanese  and  still  more  in  the 
foreign  press,  which  led  to  an  improvement.  The  Em- 
peror of  Japan  afterwards  made  some  reparation  to  the 
homeless  villagers,  and  more  care  was  exercised  in  subse- 
quent military  expeditions ;  but,  as  was  inevitable,  the 
relations  between  the  Japanese  and  Formosans  were 
greatly  embittered  and  the  robber-bands  swelled.  There 
thus  ensued  a  period  of  chronic  disturbance,  and  for  at 
least  a  couple  of  years  the  country  roads  in  many  places 
were  often  quite  unsafe  for  travel. 

Many  Japanese  lost  their  lives  during  this  period,  and 
the  intention  of  the  Government  to  bring  numbers  of 
colonists  from  Japan  to  settle  in  the  country  and  form 
a  useful  backbone  or  reserve  could  not  be  carried  out. 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE   AS   COLONISTS  389 

Owing  to  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  country  the 
immigrants  would  not  leave  the  larger  towns  where,  with 
varying  success,  they  engaged  chiefly  in  shopkeeping. 
More  recently,  however,  there  has  been  a  considerable 
influx  of  Japanese  immigrants,  and  the  towns  are  being 
improved  and  rebuilt,  while  others  are  springing  up. 
This  is  no  doubt  mainly  due  to  the  closing  of  Cali- 
fornia, Australia,  and  British  Columbia  as  fields  of 
emigration. 

One  chief  hindrance  in  the  way  of  progress  towards  a 
better  understanding  with  the  people  was,  strange  to  say, 
the  neglect  on  the  part  of  Japanese  officials  to  make 
themselves  acquainted  with  the  Chinese  dialects  as 
spoken  by  the  Formosans.  They  were  thus  dependent 
upon  such  of  the  natives  as  happened  to  possess  some 
knowledge  of  the  Japanese  language,  or,  using  the  Man- 
darin dialect,  they  employed  the  underlings  of  the  late 
Government  as  interpreters.  Seldom  able  to  obtain  in- 
formation at  first  hand,  the  Japanese  officials,  even  when 
themselves  incorruptible  (and  in  the  earlier  days  quite  a 
number  of  unworthy  men  were  in  office),  were  thus  com- 
pelled to  Use  undesirable  instruments.  Their  methods  of 
examination,  too,  were  very  summary;  torture  was  fre- 
quently employed  to  force  confession,  wrongful  imprison- 
ment was  not  uncommon,  and  many  innocent  persons 
suffered  imprisonment  and  not  a  few  even  death.  There 
thus  became  ingrained  in  the  people  a  universal  dread  of 
the  Japanese  police  and,  of  course,  a  general  feeling  of 
hostility  to  their  present  rulers.  Latterly,  however,  the 
officials  who  replaced  the  earlier  failures  have  adopted  a 
different  line  of  conduct  and  have  gained  much  in  con- 
sequence. Some  of  the  Japanese  police  have  become 
familiar  with  the  Chinese  speech  and  begin  to  under- 


390  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

stand  Chinese  ways.  At  the  same  time  schools  for 
teaching  Japanese  to  the  natives  have  been  established 
in  every  local  centre,  and  the  pupils  and  teachers  are 
often  on  very  cordial  terms.  Cases  have  actually 
occurred  of  robbers  sparing  a  Japanese  teacher  in  con- 
sideration of  the  good  work  upon  which  he  was  engaged. 
The  Japanese  have  begun  to  successfully  employ  native 
soldiers  and  police,  while  at  the  same  time,  by  copying 
the  politic  Chinese  plan  of  inducing  the  robbers  to  sur- 
render on  condition  of  immunity  or  even  by  offers  of 
employment,  —  ex-robbers  becoming  carriers  of  the  mails 
and  so  forth,  —  they  have  made  the  task  of  the  purely 
Japanese  police  a  lighter  one.  On  the  whole,  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Japanese  authorities  with  the  Formosans 
compare  favourably  with  that  of  the  Chinese  mandarins 
in  former  days. 

Industrially  and  commercially  matters  remain  much 
as  before.  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  rice  cultivation.  Tea  is  exported  from  the 
northern  districts.  The  camphor  trade  has  become  a 
Government  monopoly,  and  doubtless  the  Government 
will  see  that  the  camphor  forests  are  not  further  de- 
stroyed without  replanting.  There  has  so  far  been 
little  or  no  development  in  the  way  of  mining  or  manu- 
facture, but  an  important  change  will  very  likely  take 
place  when  the  railway  now  in  course  of  construction 
has  been  opened  from  north  to  south  of  the  island ; 
the  work  however  has  not  yet  proceeded  sufficiently  to 
affect  the  general  state  of  the  country.  The  great  trunk 
line  from  Takau  in  Southern  Formosa  to  Keelung  in 
the  north,  which  has  been  talked  about  ever  since  the 
Japanese  occupation  in  1895,  has  made  but  indifferent 
progress.  The  old  Chinese  line  from  Keelung  south- 


FORMOSA:    JAPANESE   AS   COLONISTS  391 

wards  is  still  in  use,  and  is  being  relaid  by  the  Japanese, 
who  are  also  laying  a  branch  from  Taipeh  (the  northern 
capital)  to  Tamsui.  In  the  south  the  railway  has  been 
opened  from  Takau  to  a  point  a  dozen  miles  north  of 
Tainan-fu.  In  all  nearly  one  hundred  miles  have  been 
laid,  north  and  south,  and  there  remains  a  length  of 
about  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles,  at  present  in 
construction,  to  complete  the  connection.  This  por- 
tion of  the  line  is  used  temporarily  with  trollies, 
thus  giving  connection  between  the  north  and  the 
south  of  the  island,  but  is  only  a  degree  less  incon- 
venient than  the  sea  route,  which  is  extremely  trying 
on  account  of  the  terrible  weather  prevalent  in  the 
Formosa  channel.  No  doubt  the  completion  of  the 
railway  will  tend  to  the  suppression  of  robbery  and  dis- 
order ;  meanwhile  off  the  railroad  track  —  the  main  high- 
way of  the  island  —  loads  are  everywhere  carried  on  men's 
shoulders  as  before,  no  wheeled  vehicles  being  used  ex- 
cept in  one  or  two  of  the  cities.  There  are  as  yet  no 
good  roads,  but  the  Japanese  have  broadened  and  straight- 
ened some  of  the  principal  paths,  and  those  into  the  sav- 
age country  have  been  improved.  The  savages,  however, 
far  from  being  subdued,  have,  so  far  as  one  can  learn, 
been  rather  more  troublesome  of  late  years.  As  regards 
the  present  state  of  the  lowland  country  it  is  now  in  a 
more  settled  condition  than  at  any  time  since  the  occu- 
pation, and  this  improvement  has  especially  taken  place 
during  the  last  year  or  two.  Cleanly  Japanese  villages 
and  comfortable  rest-houses  make  travelling  easier  and 
more  possible  for  Europeans,  and  the  latter  are  a  great 
improvement  on  the  filthy  Chinese  inns. 

From  a  foreigner's  point  of  view  the  postal  service  is 
a  great  convenience,  and  the  Formosans  are  more  and 


392  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

more  learning  to  make  use  of  it.  The  telegraph  service, 
which  existed  even  in  the  days  of  Chinese  rule,  has  been 
very  much  extended  throughout  the  island.  Prices 
have  risen  greatly  since  the  Japanese  acquired  For- 
mosa, in  many  cases  having  doubled,  but  as  wages 
have  risen  at  the  same  time,  the  people  are  neither 
better  nor  worse  off  than  they  were  before.  Still  they 
are  better  able  to  purchase  Western  goods,  which  have 
become  relatively  cheaper,  and  many  are  learning,  for 
example,  to  use  the  tinned  milk  of  the  Anglo-Swiss 
Company,  which  holds  the  field  almost  without  a  rival. 

The  people  complain  of  the  taxes  which  burden  all 
classes,  whereas,  according  to  their  account,  under  Chi- 
nese rule  the  load  lay  chiefly  upon  the  shoulders  of  the 
rich.  It  strikes  an  onlooker  that  the  Japanese  (partly 
from  ignorance  of  the  native  speech)  pay  very  dearly  for 
work  done,  and  consequently  the  administration  of  the 
island  has  been  terribly  costly  and  out  of  proportion  to 
the  results  achieved. 

Under  Japanese  rule  Christianity  meets  with  encour- 
agement, for  it  is  recognised  that,  under  the  influence 
of  missionaries,  so  long  as  they  do  not  interfere  in 
politics,  the  natives  are  more  peaceable  and  better  citi- 
zens. In  the  early  days  of  the  Japanese  occupation  to 
be  a  Christian  was  even  a  passport  to  favour,  since  it 
was  recognised  that  the  missionaries  discountenanced 
any  rebellion  against  established  authority.  A  suspected 
household  was  sometimes  acquitted  if  it  could  produce  a 
hymn-book,  and  the  demand  for  these  immediately  went 
up.  The  Japanese  devised  a  further  test — the  repetition 
of  the  names  of  the  twelve  apostles — and  the  missionaries 
were  at  once  besieged  with  possible  converts  who  de- 
sired to  be  instructed  in  this  useful  particular.  Chris- 


FORMOSA:    JAPANESE  AS  COLONISTS 


393 


tianity,  however,  apart  from  these  temporary  aberrations, 
has  obtained  a  firm  footing,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  a  Japanese  Christian  missionary  —  perhaps  the  first 
ever  known  —  is  at  work  in  the  island. 

Little  has  been  said  hitherto  of  the  physical  character- 
istics of  the  island,  but  they  are  of  great  importance  in 
gauging  the  future  of  the  first  Oriental  colony.  As 
might  be  expected  from  its  position,  Formosa  enjoys  a 


JAPANESE    MISSIONARY    WITH    CHINESE   AND    PEl'O-mYAN    CONVERTS 

tropical  climate  and  is  trying  as  a  residence  for  white 
men,  more  on  account  of  the  fever  prevalent  on 
the  low-lying  plains  and  at  the  ports  than  from  any 
peculiarly  trying  heat.  The  Japanese,  accustomed  to 
a  sharp  winter,  at  first  suffered  a  good  deal  in  health, 
but  are  nevertheless  singularly  hardy  where  climate  is 
concerned,  and  will  probably  find  Formosa  later  on  quite 
congenial.  The  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  island 
are  great,  the  alluvial  plain  of  which  the  western  side 


394  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

is  chiefly  composed  being  eminently  suitable  for  sugar, 
rice,  and  other  crops ;  but  agriculture,  which  owes 
most  of  its  success  so  far  to  the  plodding  industry  of  the 
Chinese,  has  also  suffered  from  their  mulish  conservatism 
and  opposition  to  reform.  The  camphor  trade,  once 
valuable,  is  another  instance  of  their  short-sighted  policy. 
From  being  a  considerable  industry  in  the  hands  of 
foreign  firms  it  became  a  monopoly  of  the  Taotai,  who 
farmed  it  out,  and  by  the  injudicious  and  wasteful 
methods  employed  the  trees  were  so  damaged  that 
the  amount  of  camphor  obtained  dwindled  to  a  mere 
nothing. 

There  is  coal  in  the  north,  notably  at  Keelung,  but  the 
quality  is  said  to  be  inferior.  The  method  of  mining 
until  a  dozen  years  ago  was  primitive  in  the  extreme. 
Horizontal  tunnels  were  worked  into  the  hillsides, 
inclined  upwards  to  permit  the  egress  of  accumulated 
water,  and  into  these  a  man  crawled  and  excavated 
small  lumps  of  coal.  This  method  was  slightly  amended 
even  before  the  Japanese  arrived,  but,  though  the 
authorities  have  improved  matters  very  much,  there 
still  remains  a  good  deal  to  be  done  in  the  introduction 
of  scientific  mining.  Sulphur  is  another  of  the  natural 
products  which  has  not  been  thoroughly  exploited ;  coffee 
is  said  to  be  a  failure,  there  is  little  valuable  timber,  and 
tea,  although  largely  exported,  is  not  of  the  finest  kind. 
The  great  drawback  to  all  industries  is,  however,  the  en- 
tire lack  of  good  ports  and  of  navigable  waterways,  but 
the  latter  want  is  being  partially  remedied  by  the  com- 
pletion of  the  railway  system,  which  will  run  through 
the  most  fertile  districts  and  connect  the  principal  towns, 
and  the  former  by  the  improvement  of  Keelung  harbour. 
Since  the  suppression  of  piracy  the  considerable  trade 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE   AS   COLONISTS  395 

in  small  junks  plying  between  Formosa  and  the  main- 
land has  greatly  increased,  and  large  quantities  of  rice 
are  exported  annually.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  China. 

The  fabulous  wealth  with  which  Formosa  was  cred- 
ited, in  the  days  when  that  island  was  still  shrouded  in 
mystery,  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  sketch  to  be 
somewhat  exaggerated ;  and  the  writer  is  inclined  to 
think  that  the  traveller  who,  lured  by  its  title  of  "  the 
Beautiful,"  first  lands  at  Takau,  and  sees  the  bare  unin- 
teresting outline  of  Ape's  hill  dominating  a  mean  town 
on  a  mud  flat,  will  feel  equally  disillusioned.  Nor  are 
Keelung  and  Tamsui,  though  more  pleasantly  situated 
with  backgrounds  of  wooded  slopes  and  distant  moun- 
tains, interesting  or  beautiful  in  themselves;  it  is  only 
the  eastern  mountain  range  which  really  repays  a  visit 
from  an  aesthetic  point  of  view.  Unfortunately  that 
coast  is  remote,  and  touched  at  only  by  a  few  small  Jap- 
anese steamers.  The  range  is  still  occupied  by  irrecon- 
cilable savages,  who  continue  to  give  a  great  deal  of 
trouble,  and  it  will  inevitably  take  many  years  to  reduce 
them  all  to  submission.  Thus  the  beautiful  side  of 
Formosa  remains  a  terra  incognita. 

In  the  towns  one  hears  the  new  administration  spoken 
well  of,  but  at  the  same  time  the  few  British  firms  who 
have  long  been  established  in  the  various  ports  are 
mostly  leaving  the  island,  presumably  because  they  can- 
not compete  with  the  Japanese,  who  regard  Formosa 
as  a  market  for  their  own  manufactures.  Until  the 
whole  country  is  pacified  and  open  the  market  will  not 
be  a  satisfactory  one,  and  until  harbours,  railways,  and 
roads  are  improved,  Formosa  will  continue  to  fall  short 
of  her  possibilities.  One  of  the  most  notable  acts  of  the 
new  administration  has  been,  following  the  example  of 


396  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Holland  in  Java,  the  prohibition  of  opium,  and  this  has 
destroyed  a  very  considerable  trade.  There  seems  reason, 
however,  to  believe  that  Japan  intends  generally  to  adopt 
not  the  Dutch  East  Indian  method  of  ruling  her  colo- 
nies, but  that  of  Great  Britain,  in  which  case  she  will 
not  mind  expense  and  loss  at  the  outset  so  long  as  she 
lays  the  foundation-stone  of  success. 

The  strategic  importance  of  Formosa  was,  however, 
the  real  reason  of  its  annexation  by  Japan,  and  this  is 
far  greater  than,  considering  the  lack  of  good  harbours 
in  the  island,  might  appear  at  first  sight,  for  Japan  has 
the  advantage  of  safe  and  spacious  harbours  in  the  Pes- 
cadores. Through  the  Formosa  channel  is  the  route  for 
vessels  of  all  classes  plying  from  south  and  east,  from 
Europe  and  Australasia,  to  the  north  of  the  Asiatic 
coast.  It  is  rendered  more  important  by  the  fact  that 
the  open  ocean  east  of  Formosa,  during  a  great  part  of 
the  year  rendered  dangerous  by  the  monsoons,  is  also 
subject  to  typhoons.  Japan  therefore  dominates  a  chan- 
nel almost  as  important  in  its  way  as  that  through  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  with  the  advantage  of  safe  har- 
bours in  the  Pescadores.  Moreover  she  occupies  a  domi- 
nating position  as  regards  a  large  portion  of  the  Chinese 
coast,  and  should  the  partition  of  China  develop  still 
further  she  will  undoubtedly  —  must  indeed  in  self-de- 
fence—  push  her  claim  to  that  part  of  the  empire  facing 
Formosa  and  largely  bound  up  with  it  by  ties  of  blood 
and  mutual  intercourse.  Holding  these  views  she  is 
spending  enormous  sums  on  Keelung  harbour  and  the 
development  of  the  island.  Formosa  has  been  a  serious 
charge  and  is  likely  to  be  so  for  many  years  to  come. 
In  the  first  flush  of  victory  and  colonial  expansion  the 
Japanese  indulged  the  vain  hope  that  the  island  would 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE   AS   COLONISTS 


397 


be  self-supporting.  Instead  of  this  an  annual  subven- 
tion of  about  ,£600,000  has  to  be  granted,  nor  does  this 
at  all  represent  the  whole  assistance  given  by  Japan  to 
her  colony. 

It  is  because  of  the  increased  importance  which  the 
acquisition  of  Formosa  gives  to  Japan  in  the  Pacific 
that  a  sketch  of  the  island  has  been  included  in  this 
volume.  A  question  of  deep  interest  is  raised  also  by 


KEELUNG,    FORMOSA 

the  consideration  of  the  various  systems  of  colonisation 
practised  on  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  great  Pacific 
Ocean.  Can  the  Japanese  colonise  ?  On  the  success  of 
their  experiment  in  Formosa  depends  the  effectiveness 
of  that  island  for  the  strategic  purposes  already  men- 
tioned, for  unless  they  can  establish  peace  and  order, 
make  good  communications,  and  provide  a  harbour  and 
coaling  station,  Formosa,  even  with  the  Pescadores,  will 
be  merely  a  white  elephant. 


398  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

The  faculty  for  colonisation — that  is,  the  making  of  new 
home-lands,  united  by  closest  ties  to  the  mother  country, 
and  yet  self-contained  and  prosperous  —  is  not  given  to 
every  race  or  every  nation.  The  Anglo-Saxons  pride 
themselves  that  they  possess  the  gift  in  its  fullest  devel- 
opment, but  time  has  yet  to  try  their  efforts  in  many 
quarters.  They  certainly  succeed  in  getting  the  best 
out  of  a  country,  and  this  they  do  in  tropical  lands  with- 
out, as  a  rule,  oppressing  the  natives.  There  is  more 
than  one  method  to  be  employed,  as  has  been  already 
shown,  and  the  writer  is  inclined  to  think  that  the 
British  is  the  best,  in  tropical  countries  at  all  events, 
and,  as  has  been  said  already,  this  seems  the  policy  most 
favoured  by  the  Japanese.  Whether  they  possess  the 
mystic  faculty  or  not  time  only  can  show,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  they  had  to  begin  under  most  un- 
favourable conditions.  Hitherto  the  experiences  of  Jap- 
anese in  other  colonies  goes  to  show  that  they  do  not 
become  absorbed  in  the  same  way  as  either  the  Chinese 
or  Germans,  who,  though  in  a  widely  different  manner, 
seem  to  become  an  integral  part  of  the  country  they 
adopt.  The  Germans  do  this  far  more  thoroughly  than 
any  other  nation  —  a  curious  fact,  for  one  does  not  usu- 
ally credit  the  Teuton  with  adaptability.  Nevertheless 
the  emigrating  Germans  prefer  to  filter  into  foreign 
lands  where  their  commercial  abilities  and  plodding 
perseverance  usually  raise  them  to  good  positions  (a 
point  of  resemblance  with  the  Chinese),  and  where  they 
rapidly  become  denationalised.  They  prefer  this  to 
pioneering  in  their  own  far-distant  possessions  in  West 
Africa  or  New  Guinea,  in  fact  they  are  good  colonists 
anywhere  but  on  German  soil.  The  German  colonisa- 
tion craze  came  too  late ;  the  best  countries  were  already 


FORMOSA:   JAPANESE   AS  COLONISTS  399 

occupied  and  Germans  had  acquired  the  habit  of  going 
to  foreign  lands.  The  Chinese  present  an  even  more 
remarkable  paradox,  for  they  expatriate  themselves  and 
yet  retain  their  nationality  even  to  the  third  and  fourth 
generation.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  explain,  but  is 
perhaps  partly  the  result  of  long  centuries  of  autocratic 
government  accompanied  by  a  great  deal  of  personal 
freedom.  Wherever  he  goes,  therefore,  the  Chinaman 
is  a  good  subject  and  peaceful  so  long  as  he  may 
live,  eat,  sleep,  and  be  unsanitary,  in  his  own  peculiar 
way.  His  calm  assurance  of  superiority  over  all  other 
people  prevents  him  from  any  desire  to  copy  their 
dress  or  mariners,  and  the  chief  tie  which  binds  him 
to  his  mother  country  is  the  desire  to  be  buried  in 
her  soil.  Consequently,  although  one  speaks  with  accu- 
racy of  the  British  colony  in  Dresden  or  the  American 
colony  in  Rome,  —  little  groups  of  people  whose  nation- 
ality is  the  most  prominent  thing  about  them,  and  who 
are  quite  outside  the  political  and  social  life  of  the  coun- 
try they  inhabit,  —  yet  it  would  be  inaccurate  to  talk  of 
the  Chinese  colony  at  Singapore  (Chinese  quarter  is  the 
only  expression),  just  as  one  never  hears  of  the  German 
colony  in  London  or  New  York.  The  British  and 
American  sturdy  antipathy  to  speak  any  language  but 
their  own  is  no  doubt  one  reason  for  this,  but  at  the 
same  time  we  must  give  our  countrymen  credit  for  a 
patriotic  dislike  to  live  under  any  flag  but  their  own. 

Japan  seems  to  have  borrowed  the  antipathetic  atti- 
tude towards  foreign  languages  at  the  beginning  of  her 
career  in  Formosa,  but  she  is  not  in  a  position  to  force 
her  own  tongue  upon  other  nations  as  the  Anglo-Saxons 
are  doing  throughout  the  Pacific.  There  is  every  rea- 
son, however,  to  believe  that  the  subjects  of  the  Japan- 


400 


THE    MASTERY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 


ese  Emperor  are  as  keenly  tenacious  of  their  nationality 
and  as  proud  of  their  flag  as  the  Western  nations  they 
desire  to  emulate;  and  this  fact,  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  their  adaptability,  receptiveness,  and  power  of 
organisation,  should  go  far  towards  making  the  colony  of 
Formosa  a  success.  Japan  went  to  Formosa  for  strategic 
reasons,  and  strategically  the  experiment  is  fully  justi- 
fied. In  view  of  her  situation  in  the  Pacific  and  the 
vast  changes  occurring  there,  she  could  not  afford  to 
see  the  great  Chinese  Empire,  with  its  320  millions  of 
people  and  unrivalled  resources,  broken  up  and  parcelled 
out,  without  occupying  an  influential  position  which 
would  enable  her  some  day  to  speak  with  authority. 


ON   THE   EAST   COAST  OF   FORMOSA 


OTHER   POWERS    IN   THE    PACIFIC 


NATIVES,    CANOES,   AND   HUTS,   BISMARCK  ARCHIPELAGO 

CHAPTER  XVI 

GERMANY,    FRANCE,    RUSSIA,    AND    CHINA 

So  far  we  have  dealt  with  the  four  Powers  chiefly 
concerned  in  the  Pacific, —  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  Japan,  and  Holland,  —  and  now,  to  complete  our 
rough  survey,  a  glance  must  be  given  to  the  other 
Powers  who  also  have  important  interests  in  or  border- 
ing that  ocean.  Amongst  these  the  first  place  must  be 
given  to  Germany  and  France,  not  that  they  are  the 
most  important  factors,  but  because  both  possess  con- 
siderable interests  among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  as 
well  as  still  greater  ones  on  the  mainland  of  Asia. 
China  and  Russia — Powers  in  Asia  facing  the  Pacific, 
each  with  a  great  extent  of  seaboard,  will  be  referred 
to  later. 

The  transformation  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
Pacific  has  been  proceeding  for  half  a  century  or  more. 
But  the  abrupt  appearance  of  Germany  marked  the 
opening  of  an  era  of  activity  in  this  part  of  the  world. 

403 


404  THE  MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Seventeen  years  ago  Germany,  whose  appetite  was 
whetted  by  the  scramble  for  Africa,  appeared  in  the 
Pacific  and  has  since  obtained  control  of  six  groups  of 
islands,  —  the  Bismarck  archipelago,  the  Marshall  archi- 
pelago, part  of  the  Solomon  islands,  part  of  the  Samoa 
group,  the  Caroline  and  Pelew  islands,  and  the  Marianne 
or  Ladrones  (excepting  Guam)  —  and  of  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
Land  (German  New  Guinea).  France  has  been  present 
in  the  Pacific  since  the  beginning  of  the  last  century, 
her  chief  possessions  being  the  Marquesas,  New  Cale- 
donia, the  Loyalty  and  Society  islands,  the  Low  archi- 
pelago, and  the  Austral  islands  (on  which  Rapa  is  situ- 
ated), while  she  has  a  joint  interest  with  Britain  in  the 
New  Hebrides.  Within  the  past  few  years  Spain  has 
disappeared  from  the  scene  altogether  and  has  been  re- 
placed by  the  great  Western  Republic. 

The  transformation  on  the  mainland  of  Asia,  which 
has  been  more  striking,  may  be  recalled  in  a  few  words. 
China,  defeated  and  humbled  in  1895,  has  since  been 
unable  to  defend  herself,  and  but  for  the  jealousies  of  the 
Powers  would  be  a  carcass  for  the  wolves.  Germany 
has  acquired  Kiaochau  and  practically  control  of  a  large 
province  with  a  population  of  over  twenty  millions. 
France,  already  established  in  Annam  and  Tongking, 
has  since  obtained  territory  at  Kwangchauwan  and  val- 
uable rights  in  Southern  China.  Russia  has  crossed 
Asia  with  an  iron  road,  and  now  established  on  the 
Pacific,  is  in  practical  possession  of  Manchuria  and  has 
Mongolia  and  Turkestan  at  her  mercy.  Britain  has 
obtained  the  territory  of  Kaulung  opposite  Hong  Kong 
and  Wei-hai-Wei  in  the  north.  Japan  has  lapped  up 
Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  of  which  an  account  has 
already  been  given,  and  is  ready  to  move  on  to  the  main- 


GERMANY,   FRANCE,   RUSSIA,  AND   CHINA 


405 


land.  The  minor  European  Powers,  while  not  yet  ob- 
taining a  foothold  in  the  Empire,  have  acquired  through 
the  indemnity  a  monetary  interest  in  her  affairs.  The 
only  great  Power  that  has  not  yet  found  her  opportunity 
in  the  extremity  of  China  is  the  United  States. 

After  the  advent  of  the  United  States  in  the  Philip- 
pines,—  by  far  the  most  important  event,  —  among  the 
chief  changes  in  the  Pacific  has  been  the  rise  of  the 
maritime  power  of 
Germany,  that  nation 
having  secured  here 
as  elsewhere  a  large 
and  increasing  share 
of  the  ocean  traffic. 
Germany,  yearly  be- 
coming more  and 
more  industrial  and 
commercial,  is,  except 
Britain,  more  than 
any  other  European 
country  dependent  on 
foreign  supplies  of 
food  and  in  a  lesser 
degree  on  foreign 

supplies  of  raw  and  semi-manufactured  materials.  The 
economic  development  of  Germany  therefore  is  pushing 
her  increasingly  in  the  direction  of  sea  power,  and  every- 
where in  the  Western  Pacific  she  is  making  great  prog- 
ress in  ocean  carriage,  as  has  been  noted  on  several 
occasions  in  these  pages. 

Of  the  German  territories  in  or  bordering  the  Pacific 
there  is  only  need  to  notice  here  the  more  important 
of  her  acquisitions,  namely  German  Samoa  and  Kaiser 


A    PAPUAN 


406  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Wilhelm  Land  and  on  the  mainland  Kiaochau  Bay,  with 
its  important  Hinterland. 

The  German  Government  has  as  yet  done  very  little, 
practically  nothing,  to  develop  her  island  possessions. 
There  is,  however,  some  sign  of  activity  at  last  at  Apia, 
the  port  of  the  Samoan  islands,  Savaii  and  Upolu.1  The 
annual  sum  allotted  as  a  State  subsidy  (^7300)  seems 
totally  inadequate  for  the  purpose,  and  the  same  mis- 
take seems  to  have  been  made  here  that  is  found  to 
exist  at  Kiaochau,  as  well  as  in  the  other  Pacific  and 
African  possessions  —  the  constant  interference  with  local 
officials.  The  German  tendency,  with'  an  extreme  cen- 
tralisation and  love  of  theorising,  is  towards  academic 
criticism  and  curtailment  of  all  initiative  of  the  local 
officials.  Both  the  Imperial  Governor  and  Judge  in 
Samoa  are  reported  to  be  men  of  culture  and  admin- 
istrative talent,  and  a  free  hand  to  the  men  on  the 
spot  would  have  been  the  wisest  plan  in  a  position  of 
considerable  difficulty,  where  much  delicacy  and  tact 
were  required,  and  where  the  local  circumstances  must 
have  been  better  understood  than  in  Berlin.  So  far 
there  seems  little  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  Ger- 
man officials  to  interfere  unduly  with  the  internal  life 
of  the  natives,  and  the  same  policy  seems  to  be  pur- 
sued bv  the  United  States  in  Tutuila. 

j 

In  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land  (of  which  mention  has  been 
made  already  in  a  reference  to  New  Guinea),  with  its 
great  area  and  sparse  population  of  110,000,  there  are 
only  sixty  Europeans,  nearly  all  Germans  and  mostly 
officials.  Oceanic  development  was  originally  entrusted 

1  In  1889  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Germany  came  to  an 
arrangement,  which  lasted  till  1898,  when  on  the  death  of  the  King  disturb- 
ances arose.  Great  Britain  renounced  all  rights  over  the  islands  in  favour 
of  the  United  States  in  Tutuila  and  other  islands,  and  of  Germany  in  Savaii 
and  Upolu. 


FRANCE,   RUSSIA,   AND   CHINA          407 

to  the  German  New  Guinea  Company,  but  the  adminis- 
tration was  taken  over  by  the  Imperial  Government  in 
1897.  The  revenue  a  year  or  two  ago  was  roughly  75,000 
marks  and  expenditure  732,000  marks.  The  subvention 
increases  yearly,  and  considerable  sums  are  expended  on 
the  control  of  the  other  possessions,  though  hardly 
anything  is  being  done  with  them.  Experiments 
in  planting  and  endless  report-making  seem  to  be  the 
chief  results  so  far. 

To  turn  to  the  mainland.  At  Tsing-tao,  in  Shantung 
—  not  Kiaochau  city,  which  is  45  miles  westward  of  the 
great  naval  and  commercial  base  which  is  being  cre- 
ated by  Germany  on  the  promontory  of  the  bay  —  the 
chief  works  being  carried  out  by  the  Germans  are  the  rail- 
way towards  the  extensive  Shantung  coal-fields,  of  which 
already  about  90  miles  are  open,  which  it  is  hoped 
will  be  completed  this  year,  and  the  deep-water  harbour 
and  model  town  of  Tsingtao,  on  which  a  sum  of  something 
like  ^10,000,000  will  probably  have  to  be  spent.  These 
coal-fields,  at  Weihsien  and  elsewhere,  are  said  to  be  of 
great  extent  and  good  quality.  The  coal  supply  is 
counted  on  as  of  great  importance  for  the  working  of  the 
railway  and  developing  the  trade  of  the  port,  but  its  chief 
value  is  as  a  coaling  station  for  the  German  navy  and  the 
control  which  it  will  enable  the  railway  to  confer  over  the 
province  of  Shantung.  Besides  the  extensive  improve- 
ments being  carried  out  on  the  harbour  and  breakwater, 
there  are  drainage  and  other  works,  while  public  build- 
ings have  been  erected,  schools  started,  and  a  hospital  and 
bacteriological  institution  founded.  The  new  town  has 
already  fine  hotels,  large  business  houses,  private  dwell- 
ings, and  a  fine  sea  front.  The  railways,  coal-fields,  and 
everything  in  the  German  sphere  are  German  only. 


4o8  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Kiaochau  has  failed  to  flourish  for  several  reasons. 
Great  importance  is  attached  to  the  independence 
of  the  local  government,  we  are  told  officially,  but  the 
place,  artificially  created  and  artificially  maintained,  is 
governed  by  red  tape.  The  policy  is  to  secure  immediate 
and  direct  advantage  to  the  mother  land.  Everything 
German  is  favoured  in  a  most  ridiculous  manner,  but  the 
German  merchants,  however  enthusiastic  they  may  be 
over  the  colonial  policy,  have  hitherto  shown  a  marked 
disinclination  to  settle  or  invest  at  Kiaochau.  No  won- 
der that  this  should  be  the  case  when,  accustomed  to 
the  most  complete  liberty,  courtesy,  and  consideration  in 
the  neighbouring  British  colonies  and  the  treaty  ports 
of  China,  they  find  themselves  treated  by  their  own  offi- 
cials like  recruits  in  the  hands  of  a  Prussian  officer.  The 
treatment  accorded  them  is  galling  in  the  extreme,  and 
indeed  must  be  unbearable,  for  the  amour  propre  of  the 
German  trader  is  not  easily  ruffled  in  the  search  for 
wealth.  If  the  Germans  do  not  flock  to  Tsingtao,  the 
Chinese  traders  are  showing  their  practical  belief  in  its 
future  by  settling  and  investing  in  property  there. 

A  garrison  of  about  1500  men  is  maintained,  and  there 
are  judicial  courts  for  Europeans,  with  an  appeal  to  the 
German  Consular  Court  at  Shanghai.  The  local  coun- 
cil is  composed  of  the  heads  of  the  several  administra- 
tive departments  under  the  personal  supervision  of  the 
Governor ;  to  this  official  element  are  added  three  mem- 
bers chosen  from  the  civil  population  and  appointed  for 
one  year,  the  first  nominated  by  the  Governor,  the  second 
chosen  from  members  of  the  non-Chinese  firms,  and  the 
third  without  distinction  of  nationality.  In  addition 
there  are  endless  Committees.  Among  the  chief  de- 
fects observable  is  the  fact  that  the  officials  as  a  rule 


GERMANY,   FRANCE,   RUSSIA,   AND   CHINA          409 

are  ignorant  of  commercial  interests  and  have  a  fine 
contempt  for  trade.  There  is  a  tendency  to  employ 
Germans  in  subordinate  posts  which  could  be  more  eco- 
nomically filled  by  natives,  and  the  expenditure  for  admin- 
istration is  therefore  excessive.  The  Chinese  can  only 
sell  land  to  the  Government,  who  re-sell  to  European 
settlers,  —  almost  entirely  Germans,  —  with  a  view,  it  is 
claimed,  to  founding  a  self-governing  municipality  and 
creating  a  proper  harbour.  There  has  been  a  good  deal 
of  loose  talk  as  to  maintaining  Kiaochau  a  free  port,  but 
"  liberty  of  action  "  is  reserved  by  the  German  Government, 
and  with  Russia  closing  her  territories  and  the  United 
States  imposing  a  heavy  tariff  and  excluding  Chinese, 
the  Germans  are  hardly  likely  to  grant  the  freedom  of 
Kiaochau. 

The  tendency  of  Germans  to  settle  in  foreign  lands  has 
been  remarked  on  more  than  once  in  these  pages.  As 
long  as  Germany  has  only  inferior  places  to  colonise  and 
the  German  colonial  system  remains  what  it  is,  so  long 
will  German  peasants  decline  to  go  to  their  own  colonies, 
or  German  merchants  to  places  like  Kiaochau.  But  the 
object  of  Germany  is  to  establish  at  Kiaochau  a  great  naval 
base,  a  centre  of  German  influence,  from  which  political 
control  can  be  spread  further  and  further  afield.  An  in- 
creasing influence  over-sea  is  certain  to  be  one  of  the 
chief  aims  of  the  German  Government,  —  an  influence 
which  in  the  absence  of  successful  colonies  they  will 
seek  to  sustain  by  means  of  these  artificially  maintained 
establishments  which  are  by  no  means  to  be  dismissed 
as  worthless.  If  they  serve  no  other  purpose,  they  are 
so  many  points  d'appui  from  which  Germany  can  claim, 
and  not  merely  claim  but  exercise,  the  right  to  have  a 
say  in  the  disposal  of  the  various  questions  which  may 


4io  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

arise,  and  can  by  sea  or  land  bring  influence  to  bear  on 
other  nations,  especially  on  the  great  colonial  and  mari- 
time Power,  Britain. 

The  colonies  and  dependencies  of  France  (including 
Algeria  and  Tunis)  amount  to  3,700,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  57,000,000.  Of  this  population 
about  35,000,000  belong  to  her  African  and  West 
Indian  territories,  roughly,  22,000,000  to  Indo-China 
and  a  mere  handful  (about  80,000)  to  Oceania.  Most  of 
the  colonies  have  some  measure  of  self-government  and 
elective  councils  to  assist  the  Governor,  and  some  of 
the  older  colonies  have  direct  representation  in  the 
French  legislature. 

These  colonies  are  a  constant  and  ever-increasing 
drain  on  France.  They  are  for  her  the  tiger  which  she 
has  mounted  (to  use  the  Chinese  phrase)  and  which  she 
can  neither  manage  nor  get  rid  of.  Few  of  them  have 
a  revenue  to  cover  the  cost  of  administration.  In  1900 
the  estimated  direct  expenditure  was  over  ,£4,000,000 
(excluding  Algeria,  a  heavy  tax),  while  the  amount  to 
be  paid  into  the  French  treasury  on  account  of  various 
colonial  services  was  set  down  at  over  £160,000.  Nor 
does  this  statement  exhaust  the  whole  expenditure,  for 
both  the  War  and  Marine  departments  expend  large 
sums  not  shown  against  the  colonies. 

In  the  present  survey  we  are  merely  concerned  with 
French  Indo-China  and  Oceania.  The  former,  since 
the  treaties  concluded  with  Siam  in  1893  and  China  in 
1895,  by  which  its  frontiers  were  defined,  has  a  total  area 
half  as  large  again  as  that  of  France,  and  a  population, 
as  already  said,  of  about  22,000,000.  The  imports  for 
1899  were :  from  France  and  French  colonies  £2,207,000, 
and  from  "  other  countries "  (chiefly  Hong  Kong  and 


GERMANY,   FRANCE,   RUSSIA,  AND   CHINA          411 

Singapore)  ,£2,403,000;  but  it  must  be  noted  that  goods 
exported  from  France  to  Tongking  via  Hong  Kong 
are  treated  as  foreign  goods!  The  exports  were:  to 
France  and  French  colonies  ,£894,000,  and  to  other 
countries  ^4,5  72,000.  The  small  proportion  of  the 
exports  to  the  former  is  remarkable  —  only  about  16.5 
per  cent,  of  the  whole.  The  whole  share  of  France  is 
not  one-half  of  the  imports  and  one-fifth  of  the  exports, 
and  even  this  position  has  only  been  attained  by  means 
of  the  high  protective  tariff  which  since  1894  (the  date 
of  its  imposition)  has  brought  about  an  increase  of  two 
and  a  half  fold  —  from  20  to  over  50  million  francs. 

So  far  little  has  been  done  with  Tongking  and  Cochin- 
China,  though  both  are  very  fertile  countries  with  great 
rice-growing  deltas,  and  Annam,  "  the  stick  between  two 
bags  of  rice,"  —  the  bags  being  represented  by  Cochin- 
China  and  Tongking  and  the  stick  by  a  mountain  range 
with  a  narrow  band  between  it  and  the  sea  (Annam),  — 
is  of  little  value,  except  as  tying  together  the  northern 
and  southern  possessions.  The  earlier  dreams  of  France 
of  building  up  in  further  Asia  a  France  Nouvelle  —  the 
lesser  Colonial  Empire,  as  North  Africa  was  to  be  the 
greater  —  have  never  been  realised.  The  great  natural 
obstacle  to  the  development  of  Indo-China  is  the  absence 
of  navigable  rivers,  but  the  chief  reason  of  failure  is  the 
defect  in  her  colonial  system.  The  Songkoi  river  in 
Tongking,  "  the  splendid  waterway "  of  the  early  days 
of  French  occupation,  has  been  proved  to  be  worthless, 
and  "  the  key  to  China  "  has  therefore  been  sought  in  a 
costly  railway  project,  —  the  railway  which  is  to  traverse 
Yunnan  (the  south-westernmost  province  of  China)  and 
tap  Szechuan,  the  richest  and  most  populous  province  of 
that  Empire.  Some  little  time  ago  a  loan  of  ,£8,000,000 


412  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

was  voted  for  the  purpose  of  railways  in  Indo-China,  a 
considerable  portion  being  intended  for  the  Tongking- 
Yunnan  line.  But  the  Chinese  provinces  neighbouring 
Tongking  are  the  poorest  in  China,  —  part  of  Kwang- 
tung,  Kwangsi,  and  Yunnan,  —  inhabited  for  the  most  part 
by  poor  aboriginal  tribes  who  have  never  recovered  from 
the  shock  inflicted  by  the  terrible  Mohammedan  rebellion 
which  devastated  Yunnan  and  left  its  mark  on  the  other 
Southern  provinces.  Even  Frenchmen  are  now  becom- 
ing sceptical  of  diverting  to  French  Indo-China  the 
trade  of  Szechuan,  which  can  be  more  easily  carried  by 
means  of  the  Yangtsze  waterway,  and  men  like  Leroy- 
Beaulieu  have  drawn  attention  to  the  difficulties  created 
by  the  French  Customs,  which  examines  everything, 
fails  to  close  the  packets  properly,  and  in  other  ways  does 
its  best  to  stifle  trade.  One  may  escape  the  Chinese 
internal  dues  by  means  of  transit-passes,  Frenchmen 
exclaim,  but  how  escape  the  French  Customs? 

In  Oceania  very  little  is  being  accomplished,  and 
indeed,  if  France  cannot  do  more  with  her  posses- 
sions on  the  mainland,  she  is  not  likely  to  accom- 
plish much  in  her  oversea  establishments,  which  are 
isolated  and  scattered  over  a  wide  area  in  the  Western 
Pacific.  The  chief  of  these  establishments  is  at  Tahiti. 
From  Papeete,  the  capital,  the  French  neighbouring 
possessions  are  governed  by  a  Governor  and  an  army  of 
235  functionaries  of  all  descriptions,  with  whom  the 
colonists  are  on  very  bad  terms.  The  present  state  of 
tutelage  is  locally  denounced,  reforms  are  demanded, 
and  they  are  badly  needed.  The  Chinese  are  here 
in  full  force,  the  trade  being  almost  entirely  in  their 
hands.  All  sorts  of  projects  are  discussed  for  attract- 
ing French  colonists,  but  in  vain !  Meanwhile  France 


SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDERS  OF  MIXED   BLOOD 


GERMANY,    FRANCE,   RUSSIA,   AND   CHINA  413 


occupies  the  second  place  in  imports  and  the  sixth  in 
exports. 

New  Caledonia,  known  to  the  outer  world  as  a  French 
dumping-ground  for  criminals,  is  administered  by  a  Gov- 
ernor, who  in  military  matters  has  a  military  colleague 
and  in  civil  affairs  acts 
in  accord  with  a  privy 
council,  assisted  by  nu- 
merous functionaries. 
There  are  a  certain  num- 
ber of  islands  attached 
for  administrative  pur- 
poses to  New  Caledonia. 
Noumea,  the  capital,  has 
a  municipality,  but  en- 
joys a  very  evil  reputa- 
tion, —  "  Criminopolis  " 
it  was  christened  by  a 
Frenchman,  —  the  ma- 
jority of  its  inhabitants 
being  convicts  or  con- 
nected with  the  convict 
class.  Of  the  7000  in- 
habitants of  Noumea  only 

4000  are  free,  and  of  the  total  population  of  the  island 
(about  60,000)  there  were  recently  10,000  convicts  in 
five  classes  (liberes  or  undergoing  sentence),  about  6000 
"colonists,"  and  nearly  3500  officials  and  soldiers  (of 
whom  the  former  were  actually  half).  Political  prisoners 
are  no  longer  sent  out,  and  the  transportation  has  been 
greatly  diminished  owing  to  the  strenuous  objections 
of  Australia.  Few  women  avail  themselves  of  the  privi- 
lege accorded  of  joining  the  liberes  as  wives.  The 


NKW    HEBRIDES    NATIVE    IN    WAR 
HEAU-URESS 


4i4  THE   MASTERY   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

natives  number  30,000,  and  there  are  about  a  couple  of 
thousand  Asiatics.  There  are  three  reserves  of  land 
(state,  penal,  and  native),  and  strenuous  efforts  are  being 
made  to  induce  colonists  to  emigrate  from  France,  but 
so  far  without  success.  More  than  half  the  island  is 
mountainous  and  not  cultivable,  but  New  Caledonia 
possesses  many  of  the  essentials  for  European  colonisa- 
tion, its  mineral  resources  being  particularly  rich  and 
the  climate  not  unsuitable  for  Europeans  in  many  re- 
spects. The  great  drawbacks  to  development  are  the 
want  of  communications,  especially  railways,  and  a  good 
harbour  and  proper  labour  supply.  The  isolation  of 
the  island,  too,  is  a  great  hindrance  to  its  progress.  A 
French  line  is  said  to  be  in  contemplation  from  Cochin- 
China  to  New  Caledonia,  Tahiti,  and  other  French 
possessions  in  the  Pacific,  while  endeavours  are  being 
made  to  secure  the  connection  of  Honolulu  and  Tahiti. 

With  its  many  advantages  New  Caledonia  in  other 
hands  might  have  been  a  flourishing  colony,  but  neither 
French  peasants,  French  planters,  or  French  traders 
will  come,  while  French  capital  is  sunk,  not  in  French 
possessions,  but  in  the  Transvaal,  or  in  Russian  loans ! 

Reference  has  been  made  elsewhere  to  the  New 
Hebrides,  which  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property 
have  been,  since  1887,  under  the  authority  of  a  mixed 
commission  of  British  and  French  naval  officers  on 
the  Pacific  station.  The  French  have  avowed  that  to 
bring  those  islands  within  the  sphere  of  French  action 
is  one  of  their  aspirations,  and  a  representative  is  to  be 
sent  there  to  watch  French  interests.  The  objection 
entertained  by  the  Australians  to  any  further  extension 
of  French  influence  from  their  convict  dumping-ground, 
New  Caledonia,  already  remarked  on,  was  due  not  only 


GERMANY,   FRANCE,   RUSSIA,   AND   CHINA  415 

to  the  transportation  system  but  to  the  generally  unsat- 
isfactory administration  of  the  French,  and  the  strongest 
objections  are  held  to  France  obtaining  control  of  the 
New  Hebrides.  The  continuance  of  the  Republic  in 
New  Caledonia,  the  Loyalty  islands,  or  the  New  Heb- 
rides, of  no  value  to  France,  wedged  between  the  impor- 
tant Crown  Colony  Fiji  and  Australia,  and  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  British  Oceanic  islands,  is  a  sore  in  the 
side  of  Australia  and  should  be  removed. 

It  is  now  an  accepted  fact  that  the  French  are  not 
successful  colonisers,  and  yet,  at  first  sight,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  why  this  should  be  so.  In  the  early  ages  of  the 
colonising  era  France  sent  out  men  equal  to  any  in 
the  genius  for  winning  new  worlds,  and  yet  the  work  of 
Labourdonnais  and  Dupleix  in  India,  and  Champlain 
and  Montcalm  in  Canada,  has  resulted  in  no  lasting 
benefit  to  their  country.  The  French  are  not  lacking 
in  enterprise  or  courage,  and  they  have  never  fallen  into 
the  Portuguese  error  of  mingling  their  blood  with  that  of 
the  natives  and  sinking  in  the  scale  of  civilisation,  and 
yet  the  French  colonies,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of 
Algeria,  cannot  be  considered  a  source  of  strength  to  the 
mother  country,  but  rather  a  burden. 

The  root  of  it  lies  deep  in  the  French  character. 
Nowhere  in  the  world,  even  among  other  Latin  races, 
is  there  a  nation  which  combines  gregariousness  so  fully 
with  domesticity.  The  Frenchman  only  leaves  his 
beloved  land  under  compulsion,  and  wherever  he  goes 
his  one  thought  is  to  make  a  little  France,  —  a  little 
Paris,  —  to  surround  himself  with  the  agrements  of  his 
home-life,  and  to  forget  his  exile  as  far  as  possible.  If 
the  pressure  of  population  in  France  made  emigration 
a  necessity  her  so-called  colonies  might  benefit,  but,  this 


4i 6  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

not  being  the  case,  it  is  only  ne'er-do-wells  and  reluc- 
tant officials  —  restaurateurs,  coiffeurs,  et  fonctionnaires, 
so  a  Frenchman  has  said  —  who  go  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth  to  make  a  new  France.  They  regard  it  as  exile 
and  the  country  of  their  adoption  is  never  home  —  not 
even  temporarily  —  to  them.  The  French  fail,  not 
because  they  cannot  deal  with  and  organise  native 
races,  but  because  they  have  not  the  desire  —  perhaps 
not  the  power  —  of  adapting  themselves  to  new  peoples 
and  new  countries.  They  are  not  practical  and  are 
always  attempting  too  much,  and  no  sooner  have  posses- 
sion of  a  territory  than  they  begin  to  look  still  further 
afield,  thus  following  a  will-o'-the-wisp.  It  must  be 
taken  into  consideration,  of  course,  that  France  has  no 
colonies  in  white  men's  countries,  which  is  due  to  the 
fact  that,  not  feeling  the  need  for  them,  she  neither 
clung  to  what  she  once  had  nor  persistently  struggled 
for  more.  Commerce  was  not  the  lode-star  to  her  that 
it  has  been  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  rather  influence,  power, 
military  glory ;  and  the  desire  for  these,  though  constant, 
has  been  but  spasmodically  evinced.  The  French  colo- 
nial officials,  as  is  not  surprising  under  this  regime,  are 
seldom  either  competent  or  trustworthy.  Brought  up 
in  the  traditions  of  a  red-tape  bureaucracy,  —  where  the 
letter  is  the  thing,  not  the  spirit,  —  they  owe  their 
appointment  to  the  "  spoils  system,"  and  as  their  hearts 
are  not  really  in  their  work  they  try  to  supply  the  place 
of  enthusiasm  and  initiative  with  routine,  uniformity, 
and  a  passion  for  details.  The  French  code  is  applied 
without  change  in  every  quarter  of  the  world,  and  the 
modern  Eastern  possessions  are  treated  exactly  as  if 
they  were  colonies  of  old  France.  Centralisation  as 
regards  the  colonies  is  a  marked  feature  of  a  highly 


GERMANY,   FRANCE,   RUSSIA,  AND   CHINA          417 

centralised  general  system,  and  the  expenses  of  govern- 
ment are  enormous.  The  number  of  officials  at  the 
Ministry  of  Colonies  five  years  ago  was  231,  as  against 
79  at  the  British  Colonial  Office.  The  number  of 
fonctionnaires  is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  work 
accomplished,  for  France  does  not  give  her  colonies 
those  advantages  of  improved  communications,  roads, 
railways,  canals,  ports,  hospitals,  and  schools,  which  are 
part  and  parcel  of  Western  civilisation,  and  are  so 
liberally  conferred  by  Britain.  Consequently  the  colo- 
nial trade  does  not  prove  a  valuable  asset  to  the  mother 
country,  most  of  that  of  Indo-China,  for  instance,  being 
in  British  and  German  hands,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  political  status  gained  by  the  possession  of  Eastern 
colonies  under  these  circumstances  is  worth  having  at 
the  price  of  such  sacrifices. 

The  qualities  that  have  made  for  failure  in  other  col- 
onies have  not  been  lacking  in  the  Pacific  islands.  The 
Society  group  are  said  to  be  among  the  most  beautiful 
in  Oceania,  Tahiti,  in  particular,  possessing  lovely  scen- 
ery and  a  fine  climate,  while  the  natives,  now  all  Chris- 
tians, are  physically  among  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
Polynesian  race.  And  yet  the  oppressions  of  a  horde  of 
incompetent  and  often  corrupt  officials,  who  owe  their 
appointment  to  some  backstairs  political  influence,  have 
at  times  turned  this  paradise  into  a  hell  on  earth.  The 
European  traders  who  desired  to  make  the  best  of 
natural  resources,  and  to  create  a  flourishing  inter-island 
trade,  have  been  discouraged  and  sometimes  driven 
away  by  official  meddling  and  impositions.  The  condi- 
tion of  New  Caledonia  has  already  been  referred  to, 
and  although  Tahiti  and  other  French  islands  have  not 
been  cursed  in  the  same  degree  they  have  inevitably  be- 

2  E 


4i8  THE   MASTERY  OF  THE   PACIFIC 

come  the  dumping-ground  and  haven  for  numbers  of 
scallywags  and  beach-combers,  who  seek  refuge  under 
their  chaotic  administration.  If  any  man  needs  a  gal- 
lery to  play  to  in  order  to  act  well  it  is  the  Frenchman. 
Without  his  gallery  he  morally  and  physically  goes  to 
pieces.  There  are,  it  is  to  be  feared,  a  good  many 
"  pieces  "  in  French  Oceania. 

To  contrast  the  German  and  French  methods  in  a  few 
words.  The  Germans  fail  in  their  colonies  because  they 
cannot  recognise  the  essential  fact  that  the  official  is  there 
to  serve  the  trader.  They  "  dragoon  "  the  traders,  treat 
them  like  raw  recruits,  and  enforce  an  illiberal  commer- 
cial policy,  which  interferes  with  the  progress  of  the  place. 
The  administration  generally  has  the  flavour  of  the  iron- 
bound  military  system  or  the  pedantic  bureaucracy  of  the 
motherland,  neither  suited  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case. 
The  French,  on  the  other  hand,  fail  because,  as  has  been 
said,  they  overgovern  by  a  horde  of  inferior  officials,  try 
to  keep  the  trade  in  French  hands,  thus  adopting  a  short- 
sighted policy,  and  instead  of  being  practical  and  dealing 
with  what  lies  immediately  to  their  hands  are  always 
looking  abroad  and  following  up  some  visionary  idea. 
Of  the  two,  however,  Germany  is  the  Power  that  will 
inevitably  play  an  important  part  in  the  future  history  of 
the  Pacific,  because,  whatever  mistakes  she  may  make 
in  her  colonial  system,  she  is  driven  by  circumstances  to 
a  policy  of  expansion  and  to  the  further  extension  of 
her  trade  and  strengthening  of  her  sea  power. 

To  turn  briefly  to  other  Powers.  The  Russians  have 
crossed  Asia  and  occupied  a  vast  region  bordering  the 
Pacific  and  China  Sea,  where  they  are  now  in  posses- 
sion of  a  considerable  seaboard  with  good  harbours  and 
important  naval  bases  fully  fortified.  Their  position  is 


GERMANY,   FRANCE,    RUSSIA,   AND   CHINA 


419 


being  strengthened  by  means  of  railways  and  colonisa- 
tion with  all  the  resources  of  a  State  which  means  to 
have  a  dominant  voice  in  the  Far  East  and  to  exercise 
a  great  influence  in  the  future  of  the  Northern  Pacific. 
They  have  the  enormous  advantage  over  other  Euro- 
peans that  they  have  been  throughout,  and  are  still,  in 
a  white  man's  country. 

The  Muscovite,  however,  is  on  his  trial  in  the  lands 
bordering  the  Pacific.     If  he  should  fail  it  will  be  chiefly 

because     all     the 

initiative  comes 
from  the  top  and 
not  from  the  bot- 
tom, everything 
being  done  by  the 
State  and  nothing 
by  the  individual. 

The  Chinaman 
has  no  colonies  of 
his  own,  —  he  has 
lost  those  he  had, 
—  and  now  parts 
of  the  eighteen 
provinces,  the 
heart  of  the  once 

mighty  empire,  are  passing  from  his  hands.  But  the 
320  millions  of  Chinese  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  are 
still  a  mighty  power,  whether  left  to  work  out  their  own 
salvation  or  brought  under  the  control  of  European 
Powers  and  utilised  by  them.  Shut  out  from  the 
English-speaking  and  English-peopled  countries  on  and 
bordering  the  Pacific,  —  the  territories  belonging  to  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States,  —  they  will  seek  their  for- 


420  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE    PACIFIC 

tunes  more  and  more  in  British  possessions,  such  as 
Hong  Kong,  the  Straits,  Burma,  India,  and  the  Oceanic 
islands,  in  Siam,  perhaps  even  in  parts  of  Africa,  and 
will  find  widely  increased  opportunities  within  China 
whenever  their  own  country  is  opened,  whether  by 
themselves  or  by  foreign  Powers. 

The  utilisation  of  the  huge  force  lying  dormant  in 
China  is  one  of  the  great  problems  of  the  future  and 
upon  its  solution  depends  to  a  great  extent  the  future 
of  the  Pacific. 


CONCLUSION 


CHAPTER  XVII 

CONCLUSION 

IN  dealing  with  the  question  of  the  Mastery  of  the 
Pacific  the  writer  has  no  intention  of  usurping  the  mantle 
of  Elijah  and  committing  himself  to  any  prophecies  as 
to  the  actual  details  of  that  struggle  by  which,  during  the 
coming  century,  the  Mastery  will  be  decided.  The  reader 
of  this  book  has  been  presented  with  a  picture,  as  com- 
plete and  accurate  as  was  within  the  scope  of  the  writer, 
of  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  Pacific  spheres  of  the 
Great  Powers,  of  the  state  of  the  native  peoples,  and  the 
burning  questions  of  the  hour.  It  is  possible  for  any  one 
who  is  acquainted  with  the  state  of  affairs  thus  described 
to  form  his  own  opinions  as  to  the  probable  trend  of 
future  events,  and  the  aim  of  this  book  is  rather  to  direct 
attention  and  stimulate  interest  than  to  dictate  policy. 
It  may,  however,  be  useful  to  gather  together  some  of 
the  many  threads  in  the  tangled  web  of  Pacific  affairs. 

The  struggle  in  the  Far  East  (which  began  with  the 
Chino-Japanese  war)  came  upon  us  as  a  surprise  and  found 
us  unprepared.  It  is  a  struggle  which  must  inevitably 
be  decided  by  military  power,  and  therefore  will  eventually 
be  mainly  fought  out  —  though  perhaps  bloodlessly  — 
by  those  Powers  which  have  convenient  military  bases, 
Russia  and  Japan.  The  arena  of  the  coming  struggle  is, 
however,  shifted  to  an  ocean  sphere,  and  the  Mastery  of 
the  Pacific  will  be  decided  by  naval  supremacy,  and  will 

423 


424  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

therefore  be  most  keenly  contested  by  the  Great  Sea 
Powers. 

In  this  new  arena  there  are  many  features  the  signifi- 
cance of  which  have  hitherto  been  unappreciated.  Here 
Orient  and  Occident  meet,  both  alike  on  alien  ground. 
Little  known,  unvalued,  neglected,  the  events  of  the  past 
few  years  have  brought  the  Pacific  Ocean  into  such 
prominence  that,  whereas  sixteen  years  ago  a  British 
statesman  of  the  first  rank  could  hardly  be  induced  to 
annex  part  of  an  important  island  adjacent  to  Australia, 
and  it  was  the  fashion  to  call  the  British  over-sea 
possessions  "  millstones  about  our  neck,"  now  the  Great 
Powers  watch  jealously  over  the  smallest  and  most  remote 
coral-reef  islands,  and  the  whole  of  the  vast  ocean  is 
practically  partitioned  out  into  spheres. 

A  glance  at  the  map  which  accompanies  this  volume 
will  show  how  numerous  are  the  lines  of  steamer  routes, 
practically  a  network  covering  the  ocean,  and  all  dating 
from  recent  years.  Cable  lines  have  been  laid  and  others 
are  in  construction,  while  new  ones  are  projected.  The 
two  great  continents  of  Asia  and  America  which  form 
the  limits  of  the  Pacific  on  either  side  for  many  centuries 
barred  the  way  to  progress  because  the  advancing  nations 
on  each  were  found  on  the  side  furthest  from  that  ocean. 
The  Suez  Canal  opened  a  short  sea-route  from  Europe 
to  the  Far  East.  Trans-continental  railways  have  since 
bridged  the  distance  overland,  not  only  from  East  to 
West  in  America,  but  from  West  to  East  in  the  European- 
Asiatic  hemisphere,  and  thus  approaches  to  the  Pacific 
have  been  opened  and  its  isolation  destroyed.  A  fresh 
access  to  the  Pacific  is  about  to  be  made  in  the 
trans-isthmian  canal,  and  this  complement  to  the  Suez 
route  will  prove  the  greatest  stimulus  to  the  devel- 


CONCLUSION  425 

opment  of  the  new  ocean  sphere  and  of  the  Far  East 
generally. 

Among  the  most  significant  features  of  the  situation 
which  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  century  is  the  advent 
of  Russia,  coming  overland,  on  the  Pacific  littoral,  where 
she  has  acquired  an  important  seaboard  with  good  har- 
bours and  a  maritime  population.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  have  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  United  States, 
coming  over-sea,  and  establishing  herself  in  a  large,  popu- 
lous, and  important  archipelago  on  the  borders  of  Asia. 
Thus  the  greatest  Autocracy  and  the  greatest  Democracy 
meet  in  the  Far  East,  and  the  question  of  their  future 
relations  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  raised  by  our 
study  of  the  situation.  Will  the  United  States,  aban- 
doning the  policy  by  which  her  foreign  relations  have 
hitherto  been  guided,  follow  the  example  of  Britain,  or 
will  she  consider  what  may  be  termed  her  immediate 
material  interests  and  give  the  support  of  her  conte- 
nance  to  Russia  by  following  out  to  a  logical  conclusion 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  ?  That  Russia  desires  to  apply 
such  a  doctrine  to  all  Northern  Asia  is  not  to  be- 
doubted,  and  if  the  United  States  in  her  new  sphere 
should  take  a  similar  view  of  her  own  interests,  we  may 
yet  see  the  two  Great  Powers  of  the  Future,  the  Great 
Autocracy  and  the  Great  Democracy,  Slav  and  Teuton, 
dominating  the  Far  and  the  Farthest  East  as  two  gigan- 
tic Trusts. 

The  future  of  China  is  a  momentous  question,  and  one 
of  great  importance  in  the  Mastery  of  the  Pacific.  The 
question  includes  not  only  the  internal  evolution  of  the 
Great  Empire,  but  the  problems  in  connection  with 
labour-supply  which  have  been  so  frequently  touched 
on  in  these  pages.  The  partition  of  China  by  the 


426  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

Powers  would  solve  none  of  the  difficulties,  and  would 
raise  a  crop  of  international  entanglements  which  would 
be  infinitely  more  serious.  We  are  not  in  a  position 
to  predict  the  future  of  China,  for  we  have  by  no  means 
fathomed  the  possibilities  of  her  amazing  people,  and 
they  may  yet  surprise  us  by  unforeseen  developments; 
but  from  the  Western  point  of  view,  the  great  hope  for 
the  Empire  is  that  the  commercial  Powers  may  unite 
to  preserve  the  integrity  of  what  remains  of  China,  and 
that  she  may  pass  under  the  tutelage  of  Japan,  thus 
averting  the  chaos  which  would  ensue  by  a  further  dis- 
turbance of  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Far  East. 

The  newness  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  Pacific  problem 
is  a  remarkable  feature.  The  young  Republic  of  the 
States  is  in  reality  little  more  than  two  centuries  younger 
than  the  young  Autocracy  of  Russia,  which  was  but  a 
small  half-savage  kingdom  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 
The  Regenerated  Japan  is  only  exceeded  in  its  youth  by 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  whose  birth  is  of  yester- 
day. The  ancient  Powers  of  Portugal  and  Spain  have 
practically  disappeared  from  the  sphere  which  they  dis- 
covered. Holland  remains,  firmly  planted,  but  stagnant, 
yet  quivering  inevitably  from  the  shock  of  contact  with 
all  this  modernity.  The  future  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
is  being  slowly  but  surely  decided,  and  in  this  connection 
we  must  recollect  that  progress  usually  moves  on  the 
lines  of  least  resistance.  The  Dutch  have  been  inclined 
to  believe  that  passive  resistance  is  the  most  effective, 
but  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  this  will  be  the  case 
when  so  strong  a  wave  of  change  dashes  against  the 
barrier. 

Australasia  is  only  beginning  to  feel  her  feet,  and  must 
still  be  regarded  as  an  almost  unknown  quantity,  but  the 


CONCLUSION  427 

immense  resources  and  energies  of  the  young  Common- 
wealth make  her  a  principal  factor  in  the  struggle.  The 
similarity  between  many  of  her  ideas  and  institutions 
and  those  of  the  United  States  is  marked,  and  might 
bring  about  a  convergence  of  policy  —  a  possible  denoue- 
ment which  deserves  the  deepest  consideration  both  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Among  the  most  interesting  studies  afforded  by  the 
present  conditions  in  the  Pacific  area  are  the  different 
methods  pursued  by  the  great  colonising  Powers.  No 
greater  contrast  can  be  found  than  that  afforded  by  the 
systems  of  the  British  and  Dutch,  as  exemplified  in  their 
Far  Eastern  possessions,  and  the  United  States  and 
Japan,  newer  arrivals  on  the  field,  are  making  interesting 
experiments  in  an  attempt  to  formulate  new  methods. 
Spain  of  old,  Germany  and  France  in  a  lesser  degree, 
afford  other  examples  of  colonial  policies,  and  the  diverse 
results  attained  by  all  in  dealing  with  a  people  practically 
of  the  same  stock  are  extremely  instructive. 

It  has  been  said  already  that  naval  supremacy  will 
decide  the  Mastery  of  the  Pacific,  and  by  that  expression 
is  meant  not  mere  forcible  domination,  but  the  mainte- 
nance of  commercial  rights,  the  control  of  communications, 
and  the  dictation  of  a  policy  favourable  to  the  ambitions 
of  the  successful  Power  or  Powers.  T-he  naval  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States  and  Japan  will  be  the  earliest 
outcome  of  the  situation,  and  other  Powers,  hitherto 
regarded  as  chiefly  military,  are  already  straining  in  the 
same  direction.  Whatever  may  be  the  success  of  their 
efforts,  Great  Britain,  Japan,  and  the  United  States 
possess  natural  advantages  which  will  count  for  much 
if  properly  utilised. 

On  the  Pacific  Slope  of  Canada  Britain  has  everything 


428  THE   MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

necessary  for  the  creation  of  a  fresh  base  f6r  sea  power, 
and  among  the  many  duties  that  devolve  upon  our 
Empire  at  this  critical  point  in  her  career  none  seem 
to  the  writer  more  important  than  the  utilisation  and 
development  of  that  magnificent  White  Man's  country, 
Canada,  and  more  especially  British  Columbia.  When 
the  glamour  which  the  continent  of  Africa  has  cast  over 
Britons  has  somewhat  faded  (as  it  certainly  will),  they 
will  turn  to  those  countries  over-sea,  their  own  without 
let  or  hindrance,  where  Nature  has  been  more  than 
bountiful  and  where,  instead  of  sacrificing  valuable 
lives  in  a  vain  attempt  to  surmount  climatic  difficulties, 
they  may  found  and  perpetuate  a  race  unequalled  in 
physique  and  those  great  qualities  which  have  made  the 
parent  stock  so  powerful.  Australasia,  though  hardly  to 
the  same  degree,  affords  great  opportunities  for  develop- 
ment, and  her  extended  seaboard  not  only  offers  facilities 
for  naval  construction  but  demands  adequate  protection. 
There  are  two  features  in  connection  with  the  British 
dominions  beyond  the  seas  on  which  the  writer  has 
already  dwelt,  but  which  he  desires  to  bring  into  greater 
prominence.  These  are  the  demand  of  those  which  are 
pre-eminently  White  Men's  countries  for  a  white  popula- 
tion of  the  right  sort,  and  the  necessity  for  closer  fed- 
eration of  all  with  the  mother  country  —  a  federation 
which  would  above  all  ensure  their  equal  participation 
in  Imperial  defence. 

Federation,  consolidation,  the  development  of  naval 
power,  —  these  are  the  immediate  and  pressing  necessi- 
ties for  the  scattered  Empire  of  Bfitain.  The  great  need 
for  the  Dominions  themselves  is  forethought  in  their 
policy,  which  it  is  perhaps  a  little  sanguine  to  expect 
from  such  young  communities.  Although  Federation 


CONCLUSION  429 

has  long  exercised  the  minds  of  British  statesmen,  the 
question  has  received  a  fresh  stimulus  by  the  recent  shift- 
ing of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  activities  of  the  Great 
Powers  and  by  the  necessity  for  Imperial  defence.  The 
new  problems  in  international  politics  which  are  raised 
by  fresh  conditions  and  an  increased  area  make  it  more 
and  more  imperative  that  the  British  Empire  should  be 
bound  together  by  the  closest  ties,  that  the  scattered 
constituents  of  which  it  is  made  up  should  be  united  in 
foreign  policy,  and  that  all  should  help  in  bearing  the 
Imperial  burden. 

Japan  enjoys  one  advantage  over  her  future  rivals  in 
the  Pacific.  Her  island  Empire  with  all  its  resources  is 
situated  in  a  commanding  position  in  the  arena  of  the 
coming  struggle.  With  all  the  necessary  elements  for 
the  creation  of  a  naval  power,  Japan  will  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  future,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  from 
the  similarity  of  her  aims  and  interests  with  those  of  the 
British  and  American  nations  a  common  policy  may 
spring  up. 

The  United  States,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  will 
be  the  dominant  factor  in  the  Mastery  of  the  Pacific. 
She  has  all  the  advantages,  qualifications,  and  some  of 
the  ambitions  necessary  for  the  role,  and  her  unrivalled 
resources  and  fast-increasing  population  provide  the 
material  for  future  greatness.  She  is,  however,  embark- 
ing on  an  entirely  new  phase  in  her  career,  and  is  taking 
risks  and  responsibilities  which  she  has  hitherto  been 
spared,  and  which,  if  they  are  to  be  carried  to  a  success- 
ful conclusion,  demand  certain  sacrifices  and  a  remodel- 
ling of  many  of  her  most  hide-bound  conventions.  A 
great  deal  of  the  machinery  necessary  for  dealing  with 
the  complicated  web  of  foreign  affairs  into  which  the 


430  THE    MASTERY   OF  THE   PACIFIC 

United  States  has  been  drawn  has  yet  to  be  created  and 
organised,  and  large  demands  will  be  made  on  the  patri- 
otism and  public  spirit  of  the  people. 

The  new  century  dawns  on  a  world  in  which  the  as- 
pirations of  the  idealists  are  as  little  realised  as  ever. 
The  two  great  nations  who  speak  the  English  tongue 
are  both  at  war,  engaged  on  difficult  and  dangerous 
enterprises.  And  yet  the  writer  urges  them  to  further 
conflict,  sounds  the  tocsin  in  their  ears,  and  bids  them 
to  prepare  for  a  fresh  struggle.  There  can  be  no  rest, 
no  pause  in  the  march  of  a  great  empire ;  it  must  advance 
or  decay  —  history  has  made  that  plain. 

The  struggle  for  which  the  nations  are  preparing  may 
be  a  step  in  the  scale  of  the  world's  progress  in  that  it 
need  not  involve  the  shedding  of  blood.  Forethought, 
preparation,  and  sustained  effort  will  be  the  only  effective 
weapons  in  the  coming  conflict,  and  these  alone  will 
decide  the  Mastery  of  the  Pacific. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Aborigines,  of  the  Pacific  islands,  3-4  ;  in 
the  Philippines,  54-56;  Australian,  161- 
163  ;  Tasmanian,  167  ;  of  New  Zealand, 
171  ;  of  New  Guinea,  176-178  ;  Fijian, 
181-183  5  °f  Borneo,  250-251,  259- 
267;  of  Sumatra,  307-308,  310-312; 
Formosan,  380-382. 

Abra,  57. 

Achin,  316  ;  the  war  in,  353-354. 

Achinese,  the,  14,  19,  308-309. 

Adams,  John,  185. 

Adelaide,  New  South  Wales,  1 66,  199. 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio,  70,  101,  126. 

Ainus,  the,  6. 

Aloon-Aloon  of  Djokja,  332-334. 

Amboina,  306-307. 

Amias,  the,  380. 

Amok,  59. 

Ampenan,  305. 

Annam,  411. 

Anping,  379. 

Antipolo,  Our  Lady  of,  142. 

Apia,  43. 

Army,  the  United  States,  in  the  Philip- 
pines, 95-99  ;  the  Javanese,  352-353- 

Art,  absence  of,  among  Malays,  1 25  ;  Jap- 
anese, 373-374- 

Atkinson,  Superintendent,  quoted  con- 
cerning former  Filipino  text -books,  133- 

134- 

Augustinian  friars,  17,  54,  69. 

Australasia,  population  of,  45  n.  ;  com- 
merce of,  193-197  ;  position  of,  in  con- 
test for  mastery  of  the  Pacific,  426-427. 

Australia,  discovery  of,  18  ;  exploration 
of,  158-159  ;  description  of,  159-160  ; 
discovery  of  gold  in,  163-165  ;  fauna 
and  flora  of,  167-168  ;  statistics  of  Jap- 
anese trade  with,  370  n. 


Australian  Commonwealth,  the,  168-169  J 
refusal  of  New  Zealand  to  join,  175, 
187-190;  system  of  tariff  of,  189; 
labour  question  in,  190-193  ;  railways 
in,  198-200  ;  cable  connections  of, 
200  ;  feeling  of,  toward  Great  Britain, 
201-202  ;  political  and  social  dangers 
to,  202-209. 

Austral  islands,  184,  404. 

B 

Bajaus,  the,  12,  259. 

Bali,  3,  4,  303-304. 

Balik  Pappan,  300-303. 

Banda,  305-306. 

Banjermassin,  20,  249,  259,  295-300. 

Banka  island,  315. 

Banks  in  Manila,  113,  150. 

Barbosa,  17. 

Batavia,  Dutch  fort  on  site  of,  1 8 ;  formation 

of  Republic  of,  21;  description  of,  349. 
Battaks,  the,  9-10,  56,  259,  307-312. 
Begbie,  Sir  Matthew,  212. 
Belgium,  trade  of,  with  Australasia,  194- 

195;   statistics  of  Japanese  trade  with, 

370  n. 

Benkulen,  19,  22,  228,  234,  314,  315,  316. 
Betel  nut,  practice  of  chewing  the,  60. 
Bicols,  6 1  n. 

Bismarck  archipelago,  404. 
Black  fellows,  Australian,  161-163. 
"  Black  Flags,"  the,  387. 
Blitong  island,  315. 
Bohol,  72. 

Boomplatz  of  Banjermassin,  296-297. 
Borneo,  3,  9;   population  of  British,  45  n.; 

Dutch,  293-303.     See  North  Borneo. 
Boro-Bodor,  Hindoo  remains  at,  329-330; 

illustration,  357. 
Brambanan,  331. 


433 


434 


INDEX 


Brisbane,  1 66. 

British  Columbia,  harbours  of,  30;  explo- 
ration of,  210-213;  discovery  of  gold 
in,  212;  resources  of,  213-220;  future 
of,  220-226,  428. 

British  East  India  Company,  20. 

British  North  Borneo  Company,  24,  249, 
254-255,  281-284. 

Brooke,  Sir  James,  23,  147,  250-252. 

Brunei,  24,  58,  147,  252,  258. 

Buddhism,  in  Java  and  Sumatra,  11-14, 
126,  329-330;  superseded  by  Moham- 
medanism among  the  Moros,  58;  in 
South  Borneo,  304. 

Bugis,  the,  12,  259,  289-290. 

Buitenzorg,  288,  306,  339,  342. 

Bukit  Timur,  229. 


Cable  connections,  between  San  Francisco 
and  Manila,  proposed,  115;  between 
Great  Britain  and  Australasia,  200;  of 
the  British  Empire,  200-201 ;  Canadian, 
223;  with  Sumatra,  315. 

Cagayans,  the,  61  n. 

California,   32-33;   discovery  of  gold  in, 

212. 

Camphor,  production  of,  in  Formosa,  390, 

394- 

Canada,  attitude  of,  in  South  African  war, 
202;  trade  of,  210.  See  British  Co- 
lumbia. 

Canadian  Pacific  railway,  210,  217. 

Canal,  the  trans-isthmian,  36-39,  197-198; 
effect  of,  on  British  Columbia,  221,424- 
425. 

Cannibalism,  among  the  Papuans,  177; 
among  the  Fiji  islanders,  182-183;  in 
North  Borneo,  263-264;  among  Su- 
matran  Battaks,  310. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Dutch  settlement  at, 
20. 

Cariboo  district,  the,  216. 

Cebu,  54,  72;  Magellan  killed  at,  17;  the 
Cathedral  of,  83;  illustration  of  a  scene 
in,  102. 

Cedulas-personales,  the,  148-149. 

Celebes,  3,  4,  18,  19,  21,  288-292. 

Chartered  companies,  a  brief  considera- 
tion of,  255. 


China,  population  of,  45  n.;  question  of 
trade  and  development  of,  47-49;  trade 
of,  with  Australasia,  194,  196;  statistics 
of  Japanese  trade  with,  370  n.;  future  of, 
425-426. 

Chinese,  exclusion  of.  from  various  coun- 
tries, 33-34;  in  Hawaii,  41 ;  immigration 
question  in  the  Philippines,  110-113; 
effect  of  mixture  of,  with  Filipinos,  122- 
123;  in  Australia,  190-192;  in  Singa- 
pore, 229-231,  237-238;  management 
of,  in  Hong  Kong,  245-246;  and  the 
future  of  Borneo,  266-269;  regulation 
of,  in  Dutch  East  Indies,  360;  as  colo- 
nists, 399;  future  of,  in  the  Pacific 
colonies,  419-420. 

Civil  Service,  need  of  the  United  States 
for  a  colonial,  139-141;  in  the  Straits 
Settlements,  232;  of  North  Borneo 
Company,  271-273;  the  Dutch,  343- 

345- 

Clifford,  Hugh,  121,  147,  235,  271-272. 

Clove,  first  appearance  of,  in  Europe,  1 1 . 

Coal,  production  of,  in  British  Columbia 
and  Nova  Scotia,  218  n.;  in  Borneo, 
249»  257;  export  of,  from  Japan,  369; 
production  of,  in  Formosa,  374;  pro- 
duction of,  by  Germans,  in  Shantung, 
407. 

Cochin-China,  411-412. 

Cock-fighting  among  Filipinos,  77-78. 

Coffee,  production   of,  in  Celebes,   292- 

293- 

Commerce.     See  Trade. 

Commonwealth  of  Australia.  See  Aus- 
tralian Commonwealth. 

Convento,  the,  in  the  Philippines,  82-85. 

Cook,  Captain,  20,  157-158,  2IO. 

Cook  islands,  6. 

Cooking,  Filipino,  76,  88. 

Copper,  production  of  (1900),  in  British 
Columbia  and  Ontario,  218  n. 

Cotton,  production  of,  in  Japan,  369. 

Crawfurd,  John,  312,  314. 

"  Criminopolis,"  413. 

"  Culture  system,"  the,  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  292-293,  355-356;  restriction 

of,  359- 

Currency,  question  of,  in  the  Philippines, 
149-150. 


INDEX 


435 


D 

Dampier,  William,  158. 

Deli,  19. 

Dewey,  Admiral,  70. 

Diamonds  of  Borneo,  257-258,  303. 

Dilli,  315,  316. 

Djokjakarta,  331-332. 

Dominicans,  in   the   Philippines,  69 ;    in 

Formosa,  386. 
Douglas,  Chief  Factor,  213. 
Durian,  the  Java,  340. 
Dusuns,  the,  261. 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  18,  21,  255, 

383-384. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  population  of,  45  n. 
Dyaks,  9-10,  56,  57,  92,  250-251,  259-266, 

381- 

E 

Easter  island,  ruins  in,  7-8. 

Education,  system  of,  in  the  Philippines, 
under  the  Spanish,  132-135;  attempted 
reform  of,  by  United  States,  135-136; 
criticism  of  United  States'  plans  con- 
cerning, 137-139;  in  British  Columbia, 
223-224 ;  in  Singapore,  236-237 ;  in 
Java,  356-357- 

Ellice  islands,  23. 

4t  Empress  "  line  of  steamships,  221. 

England,  first  appearance  of,  in  the  East, 
1 8.  See  Great  Britain. 

Espiritu  Santa,  18. 

Esquimault,  B.C.,  225. 

Eurasians,  management  of,  by  British  in 
the  Malay  peninsula,  237;  danger  from, 
in  Dutch  East  Indies,  361. 

Europeans  in  the  Philippines,  treatment 
of,  by  the  United  States,  149. 


Federation,  the  Australian.  See  Austra- 
lian Commonwealth. 

Fiji  islands,  5,  23,  181-184. 

Filipinos,  description  of  characteristics  of, 
71-93;  future  of  the,  117-153. 

P'orestry  question,  in  Hawaii,  42-43;  in 
the  Philippines,  114;  in  British  Colum- 
bia, 215. 

Formosa,  19,  367,  375,  378-400. 

Fort  Zeelandia,  379,  383-384. 

France,  colonies  of,   in   the   Pacific,  23, 


184;  trade  of,  with  Australasia,  194- 
195 ;  scandalous  administration  of  colo- 
nies of,  203;  failure  of,  in  Indo-China, 
246;  statistics  of  Japanese  trade  with, 
370  n.;  as  one  of  the  colonising  powers 
in  the  Pacific,  410-418. 
Friars  in  the  Philippines,  17,  54,  62-69, 

135- 
Friendly  islands,  6,  19. 

G 

German  New  Guinea  Company,  180,  407. 

Germany,  acquires  holdings  in  the  Pacific 
islands,  23;  commercial  interests  of,  in 
Philippines,  113-114;  holdings  of,  in 
New  Guinea,  180;  trade  of,  with  Aus- 
tralasia, 194-195;  Australian  objection 
to  extension  of  power  of,  in  Pacific, 
203—204;  successful  competition  of 
steamship  lines  of,  with  British,  238- 
240;  not  successful  in  management  of 
colonies,  246,  406-410;  Holland's  East 
Indian  colonies  menaced  by,  363;  car- 
rying trade  of,  with  Japan,  370,  376- 
377;  statistics  of  Japanese  trade  with, 
370  n.;  as  one  of  the  Powers  in  the 
Pacific,  403-410. 

Gilbert  islands,  24. 

Gold,  discovery  of,  in  California,  31-32; 
in  New  South  Wales,  163-165;  in  New 
Zealand,  174;  on  the  Fraser  river,  212; 
in  the  Yukon  district,  216;  production 
of  (1900),  in  Canada,  218  n.;  in  Bor- 
neo, 249,  257. 

Great  Britain,  brief  occupation  of  Manila 
by,  64;  commercial  interests  of,  in  the 
Philippines,  113-114;  the  Civil  Service 
of,  140-141,  232,  343-344;  holdings  in 
New  Guinea,  179,  181;  obtains  the  Fiji 
islands,  183;  cable  connections  of,  200- 
201 ;  feeling  of  dependencies  toward, 
201-202 ;  establishes  protectorate  over 
the  Malay  peninsula,  234-235 ;  in  North 
Borneo,  249-284;  Japanese  trade  of, 
369-370;  statistics  of  Japanese  trade 
with,  370  n.  ;  necessity  for  federation, 
consolidation,  and  naval  development, 
428-429. 

Guardia  civil,  the,  65. 

Gunong  Api,  305-307. 


436 


INDEX 


H 

Harte,  Bret,  31-32. 

Hawaii  annexed  to  United  States,  24,  28, 

40-41. 

Head-hunters,  9,  57,  262-264,  3IO»  381. 
"  Helps  "  in  Australia,  207. 
Hervey  islands,  23. 
Hindoo  dominion  in  Java,  13-14  ;  ruins, 

13,  126,  305,  329-330. 
Holland,    holdings   of,   in   New   Guinea, 

180-181  ;  possessions  of,  in  East  Indies, 

287-288;     colonial    possessions    of,   in 

danger  of  Germany,  363. 
Holy  Child  of  Cebu,  142. 
Hong  Kong,  23,  227,  241-247,  370  n. 
Honolulu,  40. 

"  Hotel  Wilhelmina,"  the,  295. 
Hudson's   Bay  Company,    210,  211,  212, 


Igorrotes,  56;   illustration,  97. 

Ilocanos,  the,  61  n. 

India,  British,  statistics  of  Japanese  trade 

with,  370  n. 

Indians,  Filipinos  termed,  by  Spanish,  56. 
Indo-China,  population  of,  45  n.  ;  French, 

410. 

Indonesians,  55-56,  72. 
Island   Federation,   New   Zealand's  plan 

for  an,  198. 

J 

Jacatra,  18. 

Jambi,  the,  314. 

Japan,  population  of,  45  n.,  371—372; 
development  of,  46;  trade  of,  with 
Australasia,  194,  196;  duty  on  wool 
withdrawn  by,  196;  commerce  of,  368- 
371;  in  Formosa,  387-400;  advantage 
held  by,  over  rival  Powers,  429. 

Japanese,  in  Hawaii,  41  ;  undesirable  as 
colonists,  191;  attempted  exclusion  of, 
from  Australia,  192;  proposed  restric- 
tions on  immigration  of,  into  British 
Columbia,  218,  419. 

Java,  3,  4,  10,  13,  18,  21,  126,  287,  319- 

357- 

Jesselton,  254. 
Jesuits,  in   the    Philippines,  69;  in    For- 

mosa, 385,  386. 
Jolo,  58. 


K 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land,  404,  406-407. 

Kanakas,  the,  40. 

Katipunan,  the,  68,  70. 

Kaulung,  242,  404. 

Keane,  Professor,  on  "  Malays  "  and  "  Ma- 
layans," ion. 

Keelung,  374,  379,  397. 

"  Key  of  the  Pacific,"  the,  quoted  con- 
cerning a  trans-isthmian  canal,  37-38. 

Kiaochau,  404-408. 

Kinabalu,  264-265. 

Koen,  Governor,  306. 

Korea,  population  of,  45  n. 

Korinchi,  the,  313. 

Kota  Raja,  309. 

Kotei,  259,  294-295. 

Koxinga,  19,  383-384. 

Kudat,  278,  282-283. 


Labour  question,  in  Hawaii,  42;  in  the 
Fiji  islands,  183-184;  in  the  Australian 
Commonwealth,  190-193 ;  in  British 
Columbia,  218;  in  North  Borneo,  267- 
269.  See  "  Culture  system." 

Labourers,  Papuans  as,  177-178. 

Labour  Party,  Australian,  202. 

Labuan,  23,  249,  254,  269,  270,  276-277. 

Lam  pong,  316. 

Lampongs,  the,  314. 

Legaspi,  17,  54. 

Leyden,  Dr.,  21. 

Leyte,  72. 

Light,  Francis,  233-234. 

"  Little  brown  brother,"  the,  71,  120, 129. 

Lombok,  3,  4,  304-305. 

Lower  California,  31. 

Loyalty  islands,  404. 

Luzon,  17,  54;  American  military  opera- 
tions in,  loo. 

M 

Macabebes  as  United  States  scouts,  102. 

Macao,  19. 

Macassar,  288;   description  of,  291-292. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Alexander,  21 1. 

Madura,  288,  341. 

Magellan,  16-17,  30,  54. 

Majapahit,  14. 

Malacca,  14,  16,  18-19,  22,  236. 


INDEX 


437 


Malays,  character  of  the,  121-122. 

Manchuria,  population  of,  45  n. 

Maneses,  Jorge  de,  17. 

Mangosteen,  the  Java,  340. 

Manila,  a  brief  British  occupation  of,  64; 
first  entered  by  Americans,  70;  before 
the  American  invasion,  103-104;  under 
American  regime,  104-106;  necessity 
of  improvements  in  harbour  of,  115- 
116;  schools  in,  under  the  Spanish, 
132-135 ;  as  a  rival  to  Hong  Kong,  245. 

Manua,  43,  44. 

Maoris,  the,  6,  163,  171. 

Marco  Polo  in  Sumatra  and  Java,  15-16. 

Markets,  in  the  Philippines,  85-86;  Java- 
nese, 328-329. 

Marquesas  islands,  6,  184,  404. 

Marshall  archipelago,  404. 

Mataram,  305,  332. 

Meares,  211. 

Melanesians,  5. 

Melbourne,  165. 

Melbourne  University,  1 66. 

Menangkabo,  13,  267,  312-313. 

Mestizos,  61-62. 

Military  service,  compulsory,  in  Java,  352- 

353- 

Minahasa,  289,  357. 

Mindanao,  54,  258. 

Mohammedanism,  becomes  the  religion 
of  the  Malays,  14;  among  the  Moros, 
58,  145-147;  among  the  Dyaks  of  Bor- 
neo, 264;  among  the  Battaks  of  Suma- 
tra, 311;  in  Menangkabo,  312-313;  in 
Java,  356-357. 

Moluccas,  the,  3,  4. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  the  Australian,  204. 

Moros,  the,  57-61 ;  the  religious  problem 
in  treatment  of,  145-147;  slavery  and 
polygamy  practised  by,  148. 

Mount  Egmont,  173. 

Muruts,  265-266. 

N 

Negritos,  5,  9,  54~55»  72»  z65- 
Negro  troops  in  the  Philippines,  103. 
Negros,  54,  72. 
Never-Never  Land,  the,  166. 
New  Caledonia,  5,  23,  184,  194-195,  4°4» 
4I3-4I5- 


Newcastle,  198. 

New  Guinea,  3,  4,  5,   17,    18,   176-181, 

404,  406. 

New  Hebrides,  the,  184,  414-415. 
New  South  Wales,  163  ;  trade  of,  193  n. ; 

export  of  wool  from,  197. 
Newspapers,  American,  52. 
New  Westminster,  B.C.,  222,  223. 
New  Zealand,  169-175;   reasons  for  not 

joining  the  Australian  Commonwealth, 

187-190  ;  trade  of,  193  n.  ;    export  of 

wool    from,    197 ;    proposition   of    an 

Island  Federation  by,  198. 
Nicaragua  canal  route,  36-37. 
North  Borneo,  58,  248-284. 
North-West  Company,  the,  211-212. 
Noumea,  413. 
Nova  Scotia,  production  of  coal  in,  218  n.  ; 

value  of  fish  produced  in  (1899),  220  n. 

O 
Oil,  production  of,  in  Dutch  Borneo,  300- 

302. 
Ontario,  production  of  copper  in  (1900), 

2i8n. 

Oparu,  198. 
Opium,  prohibition  of,  in  Formosa,  395- 

396. 

Oregon,  31,  35. 
Our  Lady  of  Antipole,  142. 


Pacific  Island  Labourers'  Bill,  192. 

Padang,  313,  315. 

/Wz-fields  of  Java,  321-323,  340,  352. 

Padris,  the,  313. 

Palembang,  13,  314-316. 

Pampangas,  the,  61  n. 

Panama   versus  Nicaragua  canal    route, 

36-37- 

Panay,  54,  72. 
Pangasinans,  61  n. 
Pango-pango,  43,  44. 
Papuans,  5,  162;  New  Guinea  the  home 

of  the,  176-178. 
Penang,  234,  236. 

Peninsular  and  Oriental  S.N.  Co.,  239-240. 
Pepo-hwan,  the,  380-382. 
Pepper  Coast,  the,  307. 
Perak,  235. 


INDEX 


Perth,  1 66. 

Pescadores,  383,  397,  404. 
Philippines,  population  of  the,  45  n. 
Pigafetti,  1 7,  250. 

Pitcairn  island,  settlement  of,  184-185. 
Police  in  the  Philippines,  101-102. 
Polygamy  practised  by  Moros,  148. 
Polynesians,  the,  6-7,  40-41. 
Pontianak,  259. 

Population  of  Asiatic-Pacific  area,  45-46; 
of  the  Philippines,  61 ;  of  Japan,  371- 

372- 

Port  Darwin,  199. 

Port  Jackson,  convict  settlement  at,  158. 

Port  Moresby,  181. 

Portuguese,  in  Java  and  Sumatra,  16;  col- 
ony in  Timur,  287. 

"  Preanger "  defined,  278* 

Press,  the  American,  52. 

Priests,  in  the  Philippines,  17,  54,  62-69; 
influence  of,  on  education  in  the  Philip- 
pines, 135. 

Prince  of  Wales'  island,  234. 

Province  Wellesley,  234. 

Ptolemy,  mention  of  name  "  Malay  "  by, 
II. 

Puget  Sound,  35. 


Quateron,  Father,  277-278. 

Queensland,  established,  163;   description 

of,    1 66;     government    of,     168,     169; 

foreign  labour  in,  191 ;   trade  of,  193  n.; 

export  of  wool  from,  197. 


Raffles,  Stamford,  21,  228,  288,  312,  332, 

355-35°- 

Railways,  in  Australia,  198-200;  not 
needed  in  British  North  Borneo,  281- 
282;  in  Formosa,  390-391. 

Rapa,  8,  198,  404. 

Recollets,  the,  69. 

Religion,  question  of,  among  the  Filipinos, 
141-147.  See  Buddhism,  Mohamme- 
danism. 

Rhio  island,  315. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  255. 

"  Rijs-tafel,"  347,  350. 


Rinchis,  the,  313. 

Rizal,  Dr.,  67-69,  83,  126. 

Ruins,   in    Easter    island,    7-8;     in   the 

Ladrones,    8;     Hindoo,   in    Java   and 

Sumatra,  13,    126,  329-330;     Hindoo, 

in  South  Borneo,  305. 
Russia,  statistics  of  Japanese  trade  with 

(Asiatic),  370  n.;  as  a  colonising  Power, 

418-419,  425. 


St.  John,  J.  A.,  265. 

Salmon  industry  in  British  Columbia,  219- 

220. 

Samar,  72. 
Samarinda,  294-295. 
Samoa,  6,  24,  28,  43-45,  406. 
Sandakan,  245,  254,  259,  270;  description 

of,  273-274. 
San  Francisco,  32. 
Sanger-Sanger,  302. 
Sanscrit  words  among   Malayans,  11-12, 

228,  332. 

Sarawak,  24,  147,  250-252. 
Sassaks,  the,  304. 
Savaii,  43,  44,  406. 
Schools.     See  Education. 
"Sea-gipsies,"  12,  58,  259. 
Seattle,  35. 
Self-government,  capacity  of  Filipinos  for, 

120-121;    impossibility  of,   for    Moros, 

i45-!47- 
Semangs,  5. 
Sequiera,  Lopez  de,  1 6. 
Servants,  Australian,  207;   Javanese,  337. 
Siaks,  the,  31 1-312. 
Siam,  population  of,  45  n. 
Sikhs,  as  soldiers,  261 ;  in  North  Borneo, 

272;   in  Dutch  Borneo,  302. 
Silver,    production   of  (1900),  in  British 

Columbia,  218  n. 

Singapore,  14,  23,  227-241,  349,  352. 
"  Sinhapura,"  228. 
Slavery  among  the  Moros,  148. 
Society  islands,  6,  18,  184,  404. 
Soerakarta,  332. 
Sola  topees,  96. 
Solomon  islands,  the,  184,  404. 
Sourabaya,  341;,  349. 
South    Australia,  founded,   164;    features 


INDEX 


439 


of  the  government  of,  168;  trade  of, 
193  n.,  197;  opposition  of,  to  trans- 
continental railway,  199. 

South  Australian  Colonisation  Association, 
164. 

Spain,  claims  of,  on  Pacific  coast  of 
America,  211. 

Spanish- American  war,  28. 

Spice  islands,  16,  21,  287,  305-307. 

Starlight,  Captain,  165. 

Steamship  lines,  to  the  Philippines,  115; 
to  Australia,  195-196;  between  British 
Columbia  and  the  East,  221;  German 
versus  British,  in  the  East  Indies,  238- 
241;  to  Macassar,  291;  Japanese,  376- 

377- 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  43. 
Straits  Settlements,  45  n.,  227-241. 
Stuart,  MacDonall,  159. 
Sultans,  Moro,  60-61. 
Sulu,  58. 
Sumatra,  3,  4,  9,   10,  13,  287,  288,  307- 

3I7- 

Sun-worshippers,  57. 
Sweden,  trade  of,  with  Australasia,  194. 
Swettenham,  Sir  Frank,  121,  235,  271. 
Sydney,  165,  198. 


Tacomah,  35. 

Taft,  Judge,  152-153. 

Tagalogs,  61  n. 

Tagals,  61,  69,  70,  72. 

Tahiti,  412,  414,  417. 

Tainan,  383,  384,  391. 

Takau,  378,  379,  385,  390. 

Tamsui,  379,  385,  391. 

Tariff,  the  Australian,  189-190,  196;  Jap- 
anese, in  Formosa,  375. 

Tasman,  Abel,  19. 

Tasmania,  19;  convict  settlement  in,  159; 
description  of,  167;  distinctive  features 
of  government  of,  168-169;  trade  of, 
193  n. 

Taxation,  problem  of,  in  the  Philippines, 
148-149;  in  Java,  355-356. 

Ternate  island,  18,  306. 

Theatres  in  the  Philippines,  85. 

Tidor,  1 8. 

Timor,  3,  19,  278,  287,  305. 


Tinguianes,  the,  57. 

Tin-smelting  in  the  Straits  Settlements, 
232. 

Tobacco  industry,  the,  in  Philippines, 
114;  in  North  Borneo,  278-279;  in 
Dutch  Borneo,  316-317, 

Tobah  lake,  310. 

Tonga  islands,  6,  23. 

Tongans,  1 86. 

Tongking,  411-412. 

Torres,  18. 

Tosari,  349~35°- 

Trade,  British,  German,  and  American,  in 
the  Philippines,  1 13-1 14;  of  Australasia, 
I93~I975  °f  tne  Straits  Settlements, 
232-233;  of  Hong  Kong,  244-245;  of 
British  North  Borneo,  280;  the  Dutch 
East  Indian,  358-360;  of  Japan,  368- 
371 ;  statistics  of  Japanese,  with  foreign 
countries,  370  n. 

Trans-isthmian  canal,  36-39,  197-198, 
221,  424-425. 

Treaty  of  the  Escurial,  211. 

Treaty  of  Nanking,  385. 

Treaty  of  Shimosekei,  387. 

Treaty  of  Tientsin,  385. 

Tutuila,  43,  406. 

U 

United  Kingdom,  trade  of,  with  Austra- 
lasia, 194-195.  See  Great  Britain. 

United  States,  annexation  of  Hawaii  and 
occupation  of  Samoa  by,  24  ;  in  the 
Philippines,  24,  94-116  ;  resources  and 
prospects  of  Pacific  slope  of,  29-35  » 
physical  features  of  Pacific  slope,  35— 
37  ;  classification  of  dependencies  of, 
49-51  ;  the  problem  in  the  Philippines, 
52-53  ;  need  of,  for  a  colonial  Civil 
Service,  139-141  ;  trade  of,  with  Aus- 
tralasia, 194-197  ;  statistics  of  Japan- 
ese trade  with,  370  n.  ;  will  be  the 
dominant  factor  in  the  mastery  of  the 
Pacific,  429-430. 

Upolu,  43,  406. 

V 

Vancouver,  Captain,  211. 
Vancouver,  31,  35,  211,  212,  213;  coal- 
fields of,  217-218. 
Van  Dam,  Admiral,  19. 


440 


INDEX 


Van  der  Tunk,  303-304. 

Van  Dieman,  19. 

Varthema,  Ludovic,  1 6. 

Victoria,   163,   165-166,    168-169,  I93n-> 

197,  223. 

Visayans,  the,  6l,  69,  72. 
Volcanoes  in  the  East  Indian  islands,  305. 

W 
Wallace,   Alfred   Russel,    178,  278,  289, 

292,  293. 

Washington,  31,  35. 
Wellington,  New  Zealand,  175. 


Western   Australia,  occupation  of,    164; 

description   of,  166  ;   trade    of,  193  n.; 

demand  for  a  trans-continental  railway 

by,  199. 

"  Wild  Man  of  Borneo,"  the,  262,  266. 
Wood-pulp  industry  in  Canada,  215. 
Wool,  export   of,  from   Australasia,  196- 

197;  withdrawal  of  duty  on,  by  Japan, 

196. 

Y 
Yukon   district,  the,  216;  production  of 

gold  in  (1900),  218  n. 
Yukon  river,  30. 


THE   FOUNDATIONS    OF    AMERICAN 
FOREIGN   POLICY 

WITH   A   WORKING   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

By  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART 

Professor  of  History,  Harvard  University ;  author  of  "  American 
History  told  by  Contemporaries"  etc, 

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macy, Colonies,  What  the  Founders  of  the  Union  thought  concerning  Territorial  Problems, 
and  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  To  these  is  added  a  working  bibliography  of  American  diplomacy, 
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partisan  in  its  arguments ;  it  contains  simply  the  results  of  profound  historical  knowledge.  A 
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AMERICAN   DIPLOMATIC   QUESTIONS 

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